Book Reviews - Old Testament

Review of Biblical Literature has published its latest edition of review of books in the area of biblical studies. Review of Biblical Literature is a publication of the Society of Biblical Literature.

The following reviews are of interest to students of the Old Testament:

Jim W. Adams
The Performative Nature and Function of Isaiah 40-55
Reviewed by Ulrich Berges

Description: Among linguistic philosophers, speech act theory has illuminated the fact that uttering a sentence does not merely convey information; it may also involve the performing of an action. The concept of communicative action provides additional tools to the exegetical process as it points the interpreter beyond the assumption that the use of language is merely for descriptive purposes. Language can also have performative and self-involving dimensions. Despite their clear hermeneutical importance, the notions expressed within speech act theory have been generally neglected by biblical interpreters. The few who have applied speech act theory to the OT typically subsume the discipline into an eclectic type of literary/rhetorical criticism. Such an approach, though, tends to discount the distinctive notions expressed by theoreticians. This dissertation presents the basic philosophical concepts of speech act theory in order to accurately implement them alongside other interpretive tools. The above analysis leads to applying these concepts to Isaiah 41:21-29, 49:1-6, 50:4-10, and 52:13-53:12. These four sections intricately function within the overall prophetic strategy of chapters 40-55: the call to return or turn to Yahweh. The way these chapters describe the nature of this return is for the reader to forsake sin, acknowledge and confess Yahweh as God alone. The first passage represents the basic concerns of chapters 40-48 and specifically Jacob-Israel's deliverance from Babylon through Yahweh's Cyrus illocutionary act. The final three passages represent the servant leitmotif running throughout the chapters and implore the reader through self-involvement to embrace the role of Yahweh's servant.

Philip Cary
Jonah
Reviewed by Jacek Stefanski

Description: Pastors and leaders of the classical church--such as Augustine, Calvin, Luther, and Wesley--interpreted the Bible theologically, believing Scripture as a whole witnessed to the gospel of Jesus Christ. Modern interpreters of the Bible questioned this premise. But in recent decades, a critical mass of theologians and biblical scholars has begun to reassert the priority of a theological reading of Scripture. The Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible enlists leading theologians to read and interpret Scripture for the twenty-first century, just as the church fathers, the Reformers, and other orthodox Christians did for their times and places. In the sixth volume in the series, Phillip Cary presents a theological exegesis of Jonah.

Deborah L. Ellens
Women in the Sex Texts of Leviticus and Deuteronomy: A Comparative Conceptual Analysis
Reviewed by Carolyn Pressler

Description: The writers of the bibilical laws, like the writers of other legal corpora throughout history, considered the regulation of sex to be of some importance. A study and comparison of the two groups of sex laws in the Bible, those in Leviticus and Deuteronomy, reveal that factors even more narrowly focused than the general desire to control social behavior shape the texts. These factors, as reflected in the text, are responsible for the differing conceptual matrices within Leviticus and Deuteronomy. Whereas the interest of the Leviticus sex texts is ontology, that is, the classification or oder of kinds and their relationships, the interest of the Deuteronomy sex texts is property, that is, the man's ownership of the woman's sexuality and its protection. Ellens shows how these differing interests influence subtle corresponding differences in the conceptualization of women in the two groups of texts.

Tremper Longman III
Jeremiah, Lamentations
Reviewed by Francis Dalrymple-Hamilton

Description: The New International Biblical Commentary (NIBC) offers the best of contemporary scholarship in a format useful both for general readers and serious students. Based on the widely used New International Version translation, the NIBC presents careful section-by-section exposition with key terms and phrases highlighted and all Hebrew transliterated. A separate section of notes at the close of each chapter provides additional textual and technical comments. Each commentary also includes a selected bibliography as well as Scripture and subject indexes.

Paul Wilkinson
Archaeology: What It Is, Where It Is, and How to Do It
Reviewed by Aren Maeir

Description: This book has been written to be used by newcomers to archaeology in the field, and explains the techniques and methods that will help them understand and record the past.


Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary


Tags: Archaeology, Deuteronomy, Hebrew Bible, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Jonah, Leviticus, Pentateuch, Old Testament, Prophetic Literature

The Religious Reforms of Josiah, Part 2

Read Part 1: Josiah, King of Judah


Two factors contributed to create a situation in which Josiah, king of Judah, was able to bring the nation to independence from Assyria and to religious reforms. The first factor was the rise of nationalism in Judah. In the seventh century nationalism was enjoying a great revival all over the ancient Near East. The second factor was the collapse of the Assyrian empire. The rise of Babylon and its dominance of Mesopotamia became an external threat to Assyria which brought about the collapse of the mighty Assyrian empire.

The religious reform of Josiah was an attempt to renew the worship of God according to the teachings of Moses as it was understood in the seventh century B.C. These reforms included the centralization of the worship in Jerusalem. The worship of Yahweh outside of Jerusalem was abolished and the Solomonic temple in Jerusalem became the only approved house of worship in Israel (2 Kings 23:8). This reform of Israel’s worship was reinforced by the legislation of Deuteronomy 12:1-7.

The reform reestablished the celebration of the Passover (2 Kings 23:21-22). The celebration of the Passover in the days of Josiah followed the norms established in the book of Deuteronomy 16:1-8. The reform also included the rehabilitation of the rural priests. The local priests who served in the local shrines were invited to serve and minister in Jerusalem (2 Kings 23:5, 8-9). This action was reinforced by the legislation of Deuteronomy 18:6-8.

The reform made an attempt to eliminate Baal worship from the religious life of Israel. The reform decreed the elimination of the religious vessels and images dedicated to Baal and Asherah (23:4, 6). This effort was reinforced by the legislation of Deuteronomy 7:15. The reform of Josiah also made an attempt to eliminate astral worship. The worship of the astral deities, the sun, moon, and stars was abolished (2 Kings 23:4-5, 11-12). This proscription was reinforced by the legislation of Deuteronomy 12:3; 16:21-22; 17:3.

The reform also made an attempt at abolishing the hideous practice of child sacrifice. The practice of child sacrifice, a ritual that was common in the cult of Molech, the god of the Ammonites, was forbidden and the Topheth, the place in the Kidron Valley where these sacrifices were offered, was defiled (2 Kings 23:10). This prohibition was reinforced by the legislation of Deuteronomy 12:31; 18:10.

Josiah also made an attempt to eliminate the practice of magic and divination. Josiah eliminated the consultation of mediums, wizards, and teraphim (2 Kings 23:24). This proscription was reinforced by the legislation of Deuteronomy 18:11. Finally, Josiah defiled the high places where sacrifices to pagans gods were made. The high places, the sanctuaries of the rival deities, were defiled (2 Kings 23:13). This defilement was done in accordance with the legislation of Deuteronomy 7:5.

The reform of Josiah made an attempt to eliminate one of the most popular aspects of the religion of the Canaanites: the practice of sacred prostitution. Josiah destroyed the houses dedicated to sacred prostitution in the temples of the Lord in Jerusalem (2 Kings 23:7). The prohibition against sacred prostitution was reinforced by the legislation of Deuteronomy 23:18.
Josiah also eliminated the use of pillars and sacred poles. The pillars or sacred stones and the sacred poles which represented the procreative aspects of Canaanite fertility religion were destroyed (2 Kings 23:14). This act was reinforced by the legislation of Deuteronomy 7:5; 12:3.

The reform of Josiah was a revival of Mosaic faith and teaching as it was understood in the seventh century B.C. The reforms were based on the teachings of the book of Deuteronomy. The characteristic theme of Deuteronomy was love. Yahweh's gracious love had been manifested in the mighty acts of God on behalf of Israel (Deuteronomy 6:20-23). For this reason, Israel should respond to this divine love by loving God and by loving the fellow members of the covenant community.

Israel must follow God in fear and in obedience. Because Yahweh is a jealous God, he will not tolerate the worship of other gods (Deuteronomy 6:10-15). Israel had seen separated (elected) from all other nations for special service to Yahweh. As a separate people, Israel had a mission to the nations. As God's people, Israel must express God's concern for people. Yahweh's activities on behalf of the oppressed should motivate Israel to act in the same way. Yahweh is the defender of the weak, the orphan, the widow, and the resident alien, so also should Israel be. Thus, the book of Deuteronomy calls Israel to renew the covenant with Yahweh and to decide to live by the demands of this covenant

The reforms of Josiah had both religious and political implications. The purification of the cult was a declaration of Judah's religious independence from Assyria. Josiah desired to reestablish a united monarchy with a central sanctuary at Jerusalem. When Assyria was defeated in 612 and 609, Josiah realized that its fall would assure the success of his reforms and would keep Judah be free from Assyrian subjugation.

So, when Neco, king of Egypt, came to help Assyria in its struggle against Babylon, Josiah went to Megiddo to intercept Neco. In the battle between Josiah and Neco, Josiah was mortally wounded by an arrow and probably died on his way back to Jerusalem (2 Chronicles 35:23-25). Josiah died in 609 B. C. and was buried in the royal tomb. After the death of Josiah, Judah slowly returned to the worship of pagan gods. This overt rebellion against God would eventually lead to the exile of God’s people to Babylon.

When the reform of Josiah is examined in the light of the religious impact it had on the religion of Israel, Josiah’s legacy as a faithful and pious king has no equal. The Bible says that “before him there was no king like him, who turned to the Lord with all his heart and with all his soul and with all his might, according to all the law of Moses; nor did any like him arise after him” (2 Kings 23:25). There was no greater king in Israel until another son of David appeared whom the multitude acclaimed as the “King who comes in the name of the Lord” (Luke 19:38).

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Deuteronomy, Josiah, Manasseh

Josiah, King of Judah - Part 1

Josiah was one of the greatest and most influential kings of Judah. Josiah and the people associated with his court had a powerful impact in the political and religious life of Israel for many years. Josiah was the sixteenth king of the Southern Kingdom. He was the son of Amon and the grandson of Manasseh, who was considered to be the most evil king of Judah.

After the death of Hezekiah in 687 B. C., Manasseh became king of Judah at the age of twelve (2 Kings 21:1). Manasseh abandoned the religious reforms that his father Hezekiah had established and became a loyal vassal of Assyria. During Manasseh’s reign, Assyria controlled the economic, religious, and political life of Judah with a strong hand.

Manasseh had a profound impact in the religious life of Judah. He promoted the Assyrian worship of the “host of heavens” (2 Kings 21:3). The worship of the host of heavens included the worship of the god Asshur, the goddesses Ishtar, the Queen of Heaven, and the worship of the sun.

Manasseh also promoted Canaanite religious practices in Judah. According to 2 Kings 23:3, Manasseh rebuilt the high places which Hezekiah his father had destroyed; erected altars for Baal, made an Asherah, worshiped all the host of heaven, and served them. In addition, he also promoted other pagan practices such as child sacrifice, fertility religion, magic, and divination (2 Kings 21:6) and persecuted the followers of Yahweh, driving them underground (2 Kings 21:16).

After the death of Manasseh in 642 B.C., his son Amon became king of Judah. Amon followed the syncretistic religious policies of his father. After a brief reign of only two years, Amon was assassinated by his royal officials in 640 B.C. In an effort to preserve the dynasty of David, the “people of the land,” the assembly of the landed leaders of Judah, executed those who conspired against Amon and placed his son Josiah on the throne (2 Kings 21:24).

There is a general consensus among scholars that “the people of the land” were a powerful group in Judah. These people strongly favored the preservation of the house of David. Thus, with their economic, social, and military influence, they made sure that a son of David would retain the throne Judah.

Josiah came to the throne in 640 B.C. at the age of eight and reigned for thirty-two years. In his eighth year (632 B.C.), Josiah “began to seek the God of David” (2 Chron. 34:3). This meant an overt repudiation of the gods of Assyria.

In his twelfth year (628 B.C.), Josiah began a radical eradication of the idolatrous practices present in the religion of Israel. This purge began in Judah and was extended even to what remained of the Northern Kingdom. Josiah extended an invitation to the northern tribes to join the religious movement (2 Chron. 34:9). His invitation to the northern tribes was intended to promote the political reunification of the northern and southern tribes.

In 622 B.C., the eighteenth year of Josiah’s reign, the book of the law of Moses was discovered in the temple (2 Kings 22:8; 2 Chron. 34:15). The book, probably a version of the book of Deuteronomy, was taken to Hilkiah, the high priest in charge of the renovation of the house of the Lord.

The book was then given to Shaphan, a secretary in Josiah court. Shaphan was the head of a prominent family who served the kingdom in the days of Josiah and in the days of the prophet Jeremiah. Shaphan’s three sons were also very influential in political and religious life of Judah. His son Ahikam was an officer in the court and he was one of the persons Josiah commissioned to visit the prophetess Huldah to inquire about the book found in the temple. Shaphan’s two other sons, Elasah and Gemariah, later served in the court of king Jehoiakim.

After he received the book from Hilkiah, Shaphan brought it to the palace and read it to the king (2 Kings 22:10). After Josiah heard the words of the book, he tore his garments, grieved over the nation’s disobedience. Josiah was also disturbed about the judgment that would come upon the nation for failing to keep the demands of the covenant.

Josiah sent a delegation of five important palace officials, including Hilkiah and Shaphan (2 Kings 22:14) to take the book to the Huldah, the prophetess, who was requested to give an interpretation of its content.

Huldah responded with an oracle emphasizing the importance of the book. She predicted that the curses written in the book would come to pass because the nation had broken its covenant with God. As for Josiah, Huldah said that he would not witness Judah’s tragic end but would die in peace before God’s judgment came over the nation (2 Kings 22:13-20).

Josiah assembled the leaders of the people in the temple and together they made a covenant in which they promised to obey the words of the covenant as expressed in the book of the law (2 Kings 23:1-3).

Next:

"The Religious Reforms of Josiah"

Claude Mariottini

Professor of Old Testament

Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Deuteronomy, Josiah, Manasseh

The Book of Deuteronomy

Several years ago I wrote a commentary on the book of Deuteronomy that was published in Spanish in the series Comentario Bíblico Mundo Hispano: Levítico, Números y Deuteronomio (El Paso, TX: Editorial Mundo Hispano, 1998). In the introduction of my commentary, I wrote of the importance of the book of Deuteronomy in the formulation of the religious ideas of Israel and in the formation of the Hebrew Bible.

A good commentary on the book of Deuteronomy is Richard D. Nelson’s, Deuteronomy, The Old Testament Library (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002). Nelson’s commentary on Deuteronomy was designed to replace the commentary written by Gerhard von Rad, a work that has become a classic in its field. Nelson has written an excellent commentary which is a worthy successor of the original in this series.

In his work, Nelson recognizes that the language found in the book of Deuteronomy is peculiar and distinctive. The language found in Deuteronomy is characterized by words and phrases that are unique to the book. According to Nelson, the purpose of this distinctive language is “to arouse emotion and stimulate memory” in order “to motivate acceptance and action” (p. 2).

According to Nelson, the composition of Deuteronomy is complex. The book is unified in its theology, but there is evidence of disunity and repeated redaction in its final composition. Nelson refers to scribal activities present in the final redaction of the book. The redactional activity seen in the book was part of an attempt to integrate and organize the material into a coherent whole.

Nelson believes that the Ten Commandments and the covenant making at Sinai and in Moab were not originally part of the book. According to him, these texts were added to the core of the original text of Deuteronomy with the intent to connect the message of Deuteronomy to the life of the community in order to motivate the people’s obedience to the new laws.

One peculiar issue in Deuteronomy is the shift between the second person singular and the second person plural in Moses’ speeches to the community. Nelson believes that this shift reflects addresses to different audiences: when the second person singular is used, Moses is addressing the entire community. When the address shifts to the plural the focus is on individuals who are members of the community; they are addressed in order to emphasize personal responsibility.

Nelson says that a seventh century date for Deuteronomy is supported by two crucial facts: first, the book is based on the ideas and language found in Assyrian Vassal Treaties of Esarhaddon. Second, Deuteronomy is firmly associated with the book that encouraged the reforms of Josiah. In addition, the similarities between the language and message of Deuteronomy with the preaching of Hosea reflect the influx of refugees who came into Judah after the destruction of the northern kingdom.

The book of Deuteronomy was developed as a set of reforming laws, written at a time of religious, political, and social crisis in the life of the nation. The laws present in the book of Deuteronomy are in part a seventh century revision of many laws found in the Covenant Code (Exodus 20:22-23:33). This revision reflects many of the issues that the book seeks to address: the problem of centralization of worship, the issue of syncretism in the religious life of Judah, the changes in the economic and political conditions of Judean society, and the rise of humanitarian concerns that are reflected in laws dealing with the status of women and the oppression of the poor, widows, orphans, and the resident alien.

The laws of Deuteronomy are introduced as revelation of God’s will; they were given by God to the new generation of Israelites on the eve of their entrance into the land of promise. These laws are presented in the form of a farewell address by Moses to the gathered community in the land of Moab. Thus, the character of the book is homiletical and didactic.

According to Nelson, Deuteronomy was a “constitutional proposal,” a program designed to reform the social, religious, political, and economic life of Judah at a time when the nation was facing a struggle for survival. Israel was facing a religious and political crisis that could mean the life or death of the nation. Thus, the purpose of Deuteronomy was “to unify the nation, remove foreign ideologies, and reform religion” (p. 99).

Deuteronomy has many theological themes. One theme that runs throughout the book is the formation of a distinctive community living under obedience to Yahweh, the God of Israel. According to Nelson, many of the laws and demands in the book are “utopian,” that is, many of these laws in Deuteronomy were unenforceable because they ignored the economic realities of Judean society and the realities of power politics and class struggles. Rather, the laws of Deuteronomy were an appeal to the heart, requiring obedience to Yahweh’s law because of Yahweh’s gracious deeds on behalf of the nation.

A second theme is that of centralization of worship. This issue developed because Yahweh chose a single place of worship for the people in order to protect the nation’s relationship with Yahweh and its national unity. Deuteronomy stresses the election of an undeserving Israel. According to Nelson, “election means that Israel is a people defined by love and obedience” (p. 102). For this reason, Deuteronomy requires that anything that would compromise Yahweh’s position as the sole God of Israel should be eliminated.

A third emphasis of Deuteronomy is the humanitarian concerns of the book. The book of Deuteronomy promotes the view that every Israelite of means was responsible to help fellow Israelites in need. The laws of Deuteronomy deal with the plight of slaves, debtors, wage earners, widows, orphans, and resident aliens. In addition, many laws were revised and new ones enacted in order to improve the role of women in Israelite society. The aim of Deuteronomy was to present “a law for life in the land given by Yahweh” in order to “create the fair and just society” described in the book.

Nelson’s commentary is a book that should be added to the library of every serious student of Deuteronomy. Scholars, pastors, and students will find much in this commentary that will enhance their understanding of the message of this important biblical book.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Deuteronomy, Richard Nelson

The Law of the Hebrew Slave

>Part 1: The Status of Women in Israelite Society

Part 2: The Deuteronomic Concern for Women

Part 3: The Tenth Commandment (Deuteronomy 5:21)

Part 4: The Law of the Hebrew Slave

In my study of the Deuteronomic concern about the status of women in Israelite society during the seventh century B.C., I have attempted to demonstrate that the book of Deuteronomy revises several laws in the Covenant Code in order to provide some relief to oppressive situations faced by women in Israel.

In the present post, I want to study how the book of Deuteronomy deals with the Law of the Hebrew slave in Exodus 21:2-6. The law of the Hebrew slave in the Covenant Code reads as follows:

When you buy a male Hebrew slave, he shall serve six years, but in the seventh he shall go out a free person, without debt. If he comes in single, he shall go out single; if he comes in married, then his wife shall go out with him. If his master gives him a wife and she bears him sons or daughters, the wife and her children shall be her master's and he shall go out alone. But if the slave declares, "I love my master, my wife, and my children; I will not go out a free person," then his master shall bring him before God. He shall be brought to the door or the doorpost; and his master shall pierce his ear with an awl; and he shall serve him for life (Exodus 21:2-6).

This laws is designed to regulate the treatment of Hebrew slaves in Israelite society. The proper understanding of this law requires some identification of the terms used in the text.

Hebrew Slave. The word “Hebrew” is related to the word “Hapiru” (also “Habiru”). The Habiru was not an ethnic group, but the word was used as a pejorative designation to classify a group of people in the Ancient Near East who lived on the fringe of society and who were considered social outcasts.

In the Old Testament the word “Hebrew” is used to differentiate Israelites from Egyptians (Exodus 2:6; 3:18) and Israelites from Philistines (1 Samuel 4:6; 13:3). In the Old Testament the word is used mostly by non-Israelites to describe an individual Israelite. The Israelites used the word to describe themselves to outsiders. The expression “Hebrew slave” was used to designate an Israelite citizen who was sold into slavery (Jeremiah 34:9).

In Israel, many Israelites became slaves because of poverty and the inability to pay their debts (see Amos 2:6-8). Many situations contributed to the impoverishment of people in Israel: heavy taxation, high interest on loans, bad crops, and natural disasters.

A Free Person. The word “free person” (חָפְשִׁ’ hopshî) is a technical term, probably related to an Ugaritic word that means “a free commoner.” In the Ancient Near East, the hopshî was an individual whose social status was between a noble and a slave. The word appears sixteen times in the Old Testament and it is generally used to refer to a person who is freed from slavery.

The law of the Hebrew slave in the book of Exodus has several stipulations:

1. The law stipulates that a male Hebrew slave shall be released after six years of labor.

2. After six years of work, that is, in the seventh year, he shall go out a free person, without debt.

3. If the slave comes in single, he shall go out single.

4. If the slave comes in married, then his wife shall go out with him.

5. If his master gives him a wife and she bears him sons or daughters, the wife and her children shall be her master’s and he shall go out alone.

The law stipulates that if the slave’s master gave him a wife and children were born of this union, only the male slave was to go free in the seventh year, because the woman and her children belonged to the master. The woman was a perpetual slave and considered to be property of her master.

The only way the slave could keep his wife was to renounce his right to go free at the end of his time of servitude and remain a permanent slave in the house of his master.

The Book of Deuteronomy revises the law of the Hebrew slave in the book of the Covenant to allow the woman to be released with her husband. The revised law reads as follows:

If your brother, a Hebrew man, or a Hebrew woman, is sold to you, he shall serve you six years, and in the seventh year you shall let him go free from you. And when you let him go free from you, you shall not let him go empty-handed; you shall furnish him liberally out of your flock, out of your threshing floor, and out of your wine press; as the LORD your God has blessed you, you shall give to him. You shall remember that you were a slave in the land of Egypt, and the LORD your God redeemed you; therefore I command you this today. But if he says to you, `I will not go out from you,' because he loves you and your household, since he fares well with you, then you shall take an awl, and thrust it through his ear into the door, and he shall be your bondman for ever. And to your bondwoman you shall do likewise. It shall not seem hard to you, when you let him go free from you; for at half the cost of a hired servant he has served you six years. So the LORD your God will bless you in all that you do (Deuteronomy 15:12-18).

The law of the Hebrew slave in the book of Deuteronomy is a radical revision of the law that appears in the Book of the Covenant. The revised law allows the female slave to be released together with her husband. The book of Deuteronomy is indicating that through marriage, the wife of the slave has now become an integral part of his life. In addition, the book of Deuteronomy added another stipulation to the revised law. When the slave was released at the end of his time of service, the master should be generous with his former slave and provide him with provisions to help him and his family to begin a new life after their release.

At the end of the law (v.17), the author of Deuteronomy again emphasizes the female slave should enjoy the same benefits as the male slave: “You shall do the same with regard to your female slave.” The reason for this injunction is that the female slave is also “Your brother,” that is, she is a kindred of her master. Thus, the intent of the Deuteronomic law was to place the two sexes in a position of equality.

In addition, the law also favored the woman since it limited the power of a father to sell his daughter as a perpetual slave. The law in the Covenant Code reads as follows: “When a man sells his daughter as a slave, she shall not go out as the male slaves do” (Exodus 21:7). Daughters were sold by impoverished parents in order to pay family debts. However, when a woman was sold as a slave, she would “not go out as the male slaves do.” The revised law of Deuteronomy is an effort to protect and support the rights of women as full citizens in Israel.

The Deuteronomic law appeals to the experience of the oppression in Egypt to motivate the master to be generous in the manumission of the Hebrew slaves. The word “Hebrew” serves to develop solidarity between the master and his slaves since in the memory of Israel both the master and his servants were slaves in Egypt.

These charitable innovations reflect the Deuteronomic tendency to be interested in the plight of the downtrodden. This “social idealism” present in the laws of Deuteronomy is part of the humanitarian concern that became the hallmark of the Deuteronomic reformation.

To be continued.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Deuteronomy, Hebrew, Slaves, Women

The Tenth Commandment (Deuteronomy 5:21)

Part 1: The Status of Women in Israelite Society

Part 2: The Deuteronomic Concern for Women

Part 3: The Tenth Commandment (Deuteronomy 5:21)

In my study of the Deuteronomic concern for the status of women in Israelite society, I will discuss a few of the laws enacted in the book of Deuteronomy that seek to improve the legal rights of women in Israelite society in the seventh century BCE. Today I will continue my study with a review of the Tenth Commandment. When we study the Tenth Commandment as it appears in Exodus and in Deuteronomy, we can see an important change of attitude toward the status of women in Israelite society.

In the Tenth Commandment, as it appears in Exodus, it is clear that the woman is included in what belongs to a man, that it, she is considered part of his property:

You shall not covet your neighbor’s house; you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbor (Exodus 20:17).

The “house” is not merely the dwelling of a man, but his entire household, as in Genesis15:2. In Exodus the idea of the “house” includes the wife, the male servants, the female servants, cattle, and whatever else a man may possess (“anything that belongs to your neighbor”).

Although the wife was part of a man’s house, the wife was not considered an absolute property of her husband, debased to the level of a slave as female servants were. The woman had rights as a wife and as a mother. In the home she probably supervised servants, educated children, and participated in the religious life of the family.

In Israel, most marriages were sealed with the gift of the mōhar. There is much question whether the mōhar, the bridal price which a man gave to the father of the bride, was actually a purchase by which a woman became the possession of her husband. Whether the mōhar was considered the price paid for the bride or a compensation that contributed to the union of two families, it is possible that in many situations, the mōhar was considered a purchase, which served to promote the idea that the woman was the husband’s property.

According to Exodus 21:7, a man could sell his daughter to a man, but in this case she became a concubine and not a slave. Rachel and Leah complained that their father Laban had sold them to Jacob. They said: “Does he not regard us as foreigners? Not only has he sold us, but he has used up what was paid for us.” However, if they were sold to Jacob, Laban’s action may not represent an Israelite practice but it may reflect a Mesopotamian marriage tradition (see Genesis 29:26).

The mōhar, the bridal price was paid by Shechem to marry Dinah, Jacob’s daughter. When Hamor and his son Shechem went to Jacob and his sons to ask permission for Shechem to marry Dinah, Shechem told Jacob: “Let me find favor in your eyes, and I will give you whatever you ask. Make the price for the bride and the gift I am to bring as great as you like, and I'll pay whatever you ask me. Only give me the girl as my wife” (Genesis 34:11-12).

The versions differ in their translation of mōhar:

NRSV: “The marriage present.”
NIV: “The price for the bride.”
ESV: “The bride price.”
HCSB: “The compensation.”
ASV: The dowry.”
GWN: “The price paid for the bride.”

Since Shechem had to pay the mōhar and give a gift to the family, it is clear that the mōhar was the price he had to pay to obtain Dinah as his wife.

In the Covenant Code, the mōhar was also the price paid by the man who seduced a virgin. The man who violated the virgin must pay the “bride-price” (mōhar) and take the woman as his wife (Exodus 22:16-17). When David planned to marry Saul’s daughter, he was told that “the king wants no other price for the bride (mōhar) than a hundred Philistine foreskins.” Although the request was unusual, David had to pay what Saul requested as a mōhar before he could marry Michal. When Abraham sent his servant Eliezer to find a wife for Isaac, Eliezer gave Rebekah’s family expensive gifts (Genesis 24:53) probably as a mōhar, even though the word is not used in the text.

In the book of Deuteronomy, however, the attitude toward women changes. The book of Deuteronomy’s revision of the Tenth Commandment separates the woman from a man’s property in order to give proper attention to the rights of the woman:

Neither shall you covet your neighbor's wife. Neither shall you desire your neighbor's house, or field, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbor (Deuteronomy 5:21).

The Book of Deuteronomy demonstrates more respect for women in general for it emphasizes the rights of women as persons of worth, not as mere property of their fathers and husbands.

The fact that the writer of Deuteronomy placed the woman first reflects the desire to emphasize that the woman was not to be considered the property of her husband. In addition, while the book of Exodus uses the same Hebrew word hāmad (חמד) to describe coveting a man's wife and his possessions, the book of Deuteronomy uses two different words for coveting: hāmad (חמד) is used to describe coveting the wife and ’āwāh (אוה) is used to describe coveting a person’s property, as if to emphasize that the two desires are completely different.

This concern for the dignity of Israelite women is characteristic of the book of Deuteronomy, and it is consistent with the author’s desire to actualize Mosaic laws in order to correct social problems prevalent in Israelite society in the late seventh century B.C.E.

Walter Kaiser, in his book Hard Sayings of the Bible (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1996) said that since the Ten Commandments were written “by the finger of God” on Mount Sinai (Deuteronomy 9:10), the Exodus version of the Decalogue was the original and that the wording of the commandment in Deuteronomy is a free restatement of the Exodus commandment (p. 173). Kaiser wrote:

This allowed Moses to present the commandment with some modifications and updating of the situation in light of their pending entrance into the land of Canaan, while still adhering closely to the original form. In fact, these differences are very slight and of very little consequence except as viewed against the challenges that present themselves in entering into the land.

I do not believe that “these differences are very slight and of very little consequence.” In his commentary on Deuteronomy 1-11 (Anchor Bible; New York: Doubleday, 1991), Moshe Weinfeld wrote:

The Deuteronomic version inverted the order of these two commandments. Unlike the Exodus version, which has “house” before “wife,” Deuteronomy puts first “wife” then “house” and devotes to the “wife” a separate command, which suits the general tendency of this book. Deuteronomy gives special attention to women’s rights, and therefore he gives preference to the wife and reserves for her a separate injunction. By the same token she does not join the slave, the animal, and so on, contrary to the arrangement in the Exodus version.

I believe that the Deuteronomic sequence of “wife” and “house” is a radical shift in the view of the status of women in Israelite society. The Deuteronomic change reflects the increased concern for the status of women in Israelite society in the seventh century BCE and the recognition that women had legal rights as members of the covenant community. In future posts, I will discuss some of these rights.

To be continued.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Decalogue, Deuteronomy, Israelite Law, Ten Commandments, Tenth Commandment, Wife, Women, Women’s Rights

The Deuteronomic Concern for Women

Part 1: The Status of Women in Israelite Society
Part 2: The Deuteronomic Concern for Women

In Part 1 of my study on the plight of women in Israelite society, I wrote that “the status of women as persons of worth and dignity at times [is] betrayed by the social realities present in Israelite society.” In Part 2 of my study, I want to introduce how the reforms of Josiah and the book of Deuteronomy made an attempt at improving the status of women in Israelite society during the seventh century B.C.E.

The best effort to deal with the religious and social problems confronting Israelite society in the late monarchic period is found in the book of Deuteronomy. The book of Deuteronomy was an attempt at developing a special sense of social responsibility in the life of every Israelite for the poor, slaves, women, and for those in society who were underprivileged and did not enjoy the whole benefit of the law.

The book of Deuteronomy is considered by the majority of scholars to be a revision of the Book of the Covenant. The book of Deuteronomy revises old laws and introduces new ones in order to meet the needs of Israelite society in the latter half of the seventh century B.C.E.

The book of Deuteronomy is presented as an exposition of the Mosaic law revealed by Yahweh at Mount Sinai. According to the book, Moses introduced the laws of God to the new generation of Israelites in preparation for their entrance into the Promised Land. This exposition of the law was also an invitation to the people of Israel to dedicate themselves to the demands of the covenant Yahweh had established with them.

The degeneration of the religious and social life in the Northern Kingdom in the days of Amos and Hosea and the religious syncretism in Judah in the days of Manasseh promoted an abandonment of moral values and a neglect of the demands of the covenant and the ancient traditions of the nation.

In 622 B.C.E., during the renovation of the temple in the days of Josiah, king of Judah (640-609), the book of the law was found by the workers in the temple. The book found in the temple probably was an earlier version of Deuteronomy. The reading of the book affected Josiah immensely.

In a ceremony in the temple, the king invited the people to renew the covenant and to abide by the demands of the Torah of Moses. In addition to the religious reforms of the Israelite cult, there was also a reformulation of several laws to improve the plight of the destitute and the oppressed in Israelite society.

The book of Deuteronomy reflects the rise of humanism in Israel. Deuteronomy contains several new laws and many revisions of old ones dealing with the oppressed in Israel. These laws became necessary because of the changes brought by the monarchy and by the deterioration of the social structures in Israelite society.

Several aspects of the Deuteronomic reform affected women for the better. The reformulation of Mosaic laws in the days of Josiah also served to call the people who lived in the seventh century B.C.E. to hear the words of Yahweh again and to renew their commitment to the God of Israel.

The book of Deuteronomy emphasizes Israel's experience in Egypt. Deuteronomy reintroduces the laws and demands of the God who had redeemed a people from the house of servitude in Egypt to make them a special people with a universal mission. Israel was called to be a religious community where the justice of God would be manifested to the whole world.

Among the many theological emphases of the book, three deserve attention. The first was that Yahweh, the God of Israel, loved Israel with a special love, even when the nation did not deserve his love. Now Israel had to love God with their whole being (Deuteronomy 6:5).

Second, Israel had served other gods, but now Israel had to serve Yahweh exclusively (Deuteronomy 6:4). Deuteronomy emphasizes the singularity of Yahweh in the life of Israel. Finally, the book of Deuteronomy relates obedience to God to the daily life of each member of the community. Because Israel was united to God by the demands of the covenant, each member of the community had to treat another Israelite with justice.

Israel, as God's people, was a special people, a people separated from the other nations and as such, the daily life and the moral conduct among the members of the community had to reflect this relationship with God.

The demands of the covenant required personal integrity and social justice of each Israelite. The poor, the slaves, the orphans, the widows, and the other destitute persons in Israel became the beneficiaries of the changes introduced by the social reforms of Deuteronomy. In addition, there was a real effort to improve the status of women in Israelite society by emphasizing the dignity of women and by bringing them relief from some of the injustices allowed by older laws. This improvement of the status of Israelite women came by revision of older laws found in the Book of the Covenant and by the enactment of new laws directly affecting the lives of women in Israelite society.

In upcoming posts, I will demonstrate how the book of Deuteronomy is concerned with the oppressive situation of women in Israelite society. I will examine several laws and study how Deuteronomic laws revise and improve the laws in the book of Exodus to address some social injustices in Israelite society, especially injustices against women.

To be continued.

Next: "The Tenth Commandment (Deuteronomy 5:21)"

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Covenant Code, Deuteronomic Laws, Deuteronomy, Israelite Laws, Women

Mount Nebo

According to the book of Deuteronomy, after Moses declared the law to Israel and after he had finished the composition of the song to be presented to Israel (Deut. 32), the song in which Moses declared God’s faithfulness and Israel’s unfaithfulness, the Lord gave Moses instructions about his death. The Lord commanded Moses to ascend the Abarim mountains and go up to Mount Nebo and there, before he died, look at the extension of the land that He was about to give Israel as its inheritance (Deut 32:49). The people of Israel had been camping near Mount Nebo since they had entered Moabite territory, after their 40 years’ journey in the wilderness.

The book of Deuteronomy provides specific details about the location of Mount Nebo. Mount Nebo was located in the land of Moab, facing the city of Jericho, in the Abarim chain of mountains, on top of Pisgah (Deut. 32:49; 34:1). Mount Nebo and Mount Pisgah were part of the chain of mountains known as Abarim (see Deut. 3:27).

Pisgah appears in Numbers 21:20 as one of the places on the itinerary of the Israelites’ march through Moabite territory and in Deuteronomy 3:17 as one of the boundaries separating the tribes of Reuben and Gad. The site of Mount Nebo has been identified with Ras es-Siyagha, a mountain between the cities of Madeba and Heshbon. As a result of archaeological excavations at Ras es-Siyagha done by the Franciscan Bible School in the early 1930s, archaeologists have excavated a Byzantine church dedicated to the memory of Moses.

According to Jennings, the church was decorated with beautiful mosaics. The church also contained a quatrefoil baptistry (a baptistry decorated with four leaflets). In addition, “elaborate pictures of trees, fruits, birds, and animals, as well as geometric motifs and dedicatory inscriptions decorated the floors" (James E. Jennings, "Nebo," The New International Dictionary of Biblical Archaeology, ed. Edward M. Blaiklock and R. K. Harrison [Grand Rapids: The Zondervan Corporation, 1983], 332).

Evidently, Mount Nebo was located near the town of Nebo, a place on the eastern side of the Jordan. The book of Joshua declares that the territory of the tribe of Reuben included "the slope of Pisgah" (Josh. 13:20). The Book of Numbers says that the mountains of Abarim were located near Nebo (Num. 33:47). This town was part of the inheritance that Moses gave to the tribe of Reuben at the time of the division of the conquered land in the eastern side of the Jordan (Num. 32:38).

Possibly, both the town and the mountain were named after the god Nebo. According to Babylonian religious tradition, Nebo was the son Marduk, the chief god in the Babylonian pantheon. This association of Nebo with the Babylonia god may explain why the author of Numbers 32:38 declared that the name of the city was changed.

There at the top of Nebo Moses was to be gathered to his ancestors. Moses was going to die in the land of Moab without entering the promised land, which had been the focus of his ministry for 40 years. Because of his disobedience in Meribah, Moses had not honored the holiness of Yahweh in the presence of Israel (Num. 20:1-13; Deut. 1:37; 4:21). For this reason, Moses would contemplate the promised land from afar, without crossing the Jordan river with the new generation of Israelites.

After he had exhorted the people of Israel to be faithful and obedient to God's laws, Moses said his farewell to the people by blessing each tribe of Israel. Then, in obedience to God’s word, Moses left the plains of Moab, where the people were camped, and went up to Mount Nebo. From the top of Mount Nebo, the Lord showed Moses all the land of Canaan, the land that Israel was about to receive as its inheritance, as God had promised to Abraham. From the top of the mountain Moses was able to look at the land of Canaan. Even though it was impossible for Moses to see the complete extension of the land, the writer of Deuteronomy described the geographic limits of the land at it existed in his own day (Deut. 34:1-3). The description of the land follows a north-south direction.

The land of Gilead was on the east side of the Jordan River. This was the land where the Transjordanian tribes lived. Dan was the northernmost limit of the land of Canaan. This part of the land was later occupied by the tribe of Dan. Naphtali, Ephraim, and Manasseh represented the central part of the land. Judah was the southern limit. The Western Sea was the Mediterranean. Jericho, the city of palms (Josh. 6:16, 21; Judges 1:16), was the first city the Israelites conquered after they crossed the Jordan River. Zoar was situated at the south of the Dead Sea. The Negev was the wilderness of south Judah. After he was shown the extension of the promised land, Moses died in the land of Moab and was buried in a valley opposite Beth-Peor. Beth-Peor was the name of the valley where the Israelites had set their camp in preparation for crossing the Jordan River (Deut. 3:29; 4:46).

Thus, Mount Nebo is the site of an important event in Moses’ life and in the children of Israel’s life.

Note:

This article was published in the Biblical Illustrator (Fall 1999): 56-58. The Biblical Illustrator is published by Lifeway.com.

Claude F. Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Abarim, Deuteronomy, Moses, Mount Nebo, Pisga

A God So Near

The following book review was published in Review and Expositor 101 (2004): 782-784.

A God So Near: Essays on Old Testament Theology in Honor of Patrick D. Miller, ed. by Brent S. Strawn and Nancy R. Bowen. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2003. xviii + 439 pp. $47.50. ISBN 1-57506-067-1.

This volume contains a collection of twenty-four essays dedicated to Patrick D. Miller, Charles T. Haley Professor of Old Testament Theology at Princeton Theological Seminary. Professor Miller has made significant contributions to the study of the Psalms and the book of Deuteronomy. The essays written in Miller’s honor reflect the interest of the honoree. The articles deal with the books of Psalms and Deuteronomy and other topics that are related to the main focus of the festschrift. The theological emphasis of many of the articles reflects Miller’s concern to bring together the work of academia and the work of the church.

The book is divided into two sections. Part I, entitled “‘Near Whenever We Call’: God’s Nearness in Israel’s Crying Out (The Psalms and Beyond),” contains the following essays:

“Reading the Lament Psalms Backwards” by H. G. M. Williamson (pp. 3-15); “‘Without Our Aid He Did Us Make’: Singing the Meaning of the Psalms” by W. Sibley Towner (pp. 17-34); “The So-Called Elohist Psalter: A New Solution for an Old Problem” by Frank-Lothar Hossfeld and Erich Zenger (pp. 35-51); “A Fairy Tale Wedding: A Feminist Intertextual Reading of Psalm 45” by Nancy R. Bowen (pp. 53-71); “Notes on Psalm 93: A Fragment of a Liturgical Poem Affirming Yahweh’s Kingship” by Frank Moore Cross (pp. 73-77); “There the Blessing: An Exposition of Psalm 133” by James Luther Mays (pp. 79-90); “Certainty, Ambiguity, and Trust: Knowledge of God in Psalm 139” by Carolyn Pressler (pp. 91-99); “Quoth the Raven: Psalm 147 and the Environment” by James Limburg (pp. 101-111); “Prayer and/a Self-Address: The Case of Hanna” by J. Gerald Janzen (pp. 113-27); “Naomi’s Cry: Reflection on Ruth 1:20-21” by Katharine Doob Sakenfeld (pp. 129-43); “Jonah 2: A Prayer Out of the Deep” by Gerhard Sauter (pp. 145-52); “Songs in a New Key: The Psalmic Structure of the Chronicler’s Hymn (1 Chr 16:8-36)” by Mark A. Throntveit (pp. 153-70); and “Wild, Raging Creativity: The Scene in the Whirlwind (Job 38-41)” by Kathleen M. O’Connor (pp. 171-179).

Part II, entitled “‘As Just as This Entire Law’: God’s Nearness in the Torah (Deuteronomy and Beyond),” contains the following essays:

“Law in the Service of Life: A Dynamic Understanding of Law in Deuteronomy” by Terence E. Fretheim (pp. 183-200); “How Does Deuteronomy Do Theology? Literary Juxtaposition and Paradox in the New Moab Covenant in Deuteronomy 29-32” by Dennis T. Olson (pp. 201-213); “Keep/Observe/Do–Carefully–Today! The Rhetoric of Repetition in Deuteronomy” by Brent A. Strawn (pp. 215-40); “Divine Warrior Theology in Deuteronomy” by Richard D. Nelson (pp. 241-59); “Reading Deuteronomy 5 as Narrative” by Norbert Lohfink (pp. 261-81); “The Travail of Pardon: Reflections on slH” by Walter Brueggemann (pp. 283-97); “Circumcision of the Heart: The Journey of a Biblical Metaphor” by Werner E. Lemke (pp. 299-319); “Huldah, the Prophet: Reading a (Deuteronomistic) Woman’s Identity” by Renita J. Weems (pp. 321-39); “Prophets and Kings: A New Look at the Royal Persecution of Prophets against Its Near Eastern Background” by J. J. M. Roberts (pp. 341-54); “From Mountain to Mountain: The Reign of God in Daniel 2” C. L. Seow (pp. 355-74); and “Sola Scriptura? The Authority of the Bible in Pluralistic Environments” by Michael Welker (pp. 375-391).

The book concludes with a bibliography of the works of Patrick Miller written by Brent A. Strawn covering the years 1964-2001 (pp. 393-416). The 372 entries in the bibliography demonstrate the breadth and scope of Miller’s work and the influence he has exerted in Old Testament studies. The book also includes an index of authors and an index of Scriptures cited.

Because of limitations only a few articles are discussed here. Williamson’s essay begins the collection by offering an alternative interpretation to the accepted view that the psalms of a lament should be read from the perspective of the actual time of the suffering of the psalmist. He proposes the view that many of the psalms of lament should be understood from the situation presented at the end of these psalms. Thus, according to Williamson, the psalms of lament should be understood from the context of thanksgiving and celebration that arises after deliverance has been experienced and at the time the payment of the vows the psalmist had promised is made.

Fretheim’s article deals with a dynamic understanding of the laws of the Pentateuch and how individual laws can be applied to Christian faith and practice. Fretheim sees the laws of the Pentateuch as a gracious gift of God to Israel. These laws were given to Israel “for the sake of life, health, and well-being of individuals in community” (p. 184). Since life changes with time, the laws of the Pentateuch cannot be understood as unchangeable. The book of Deuteronomy offers many changes to the laws in the Book of the Covenant. These changes reflect the way God deals with his people. Since Christians also deal with the laws of the Pentateuch, Christians must study each and every law of the Pentateuch in order to discover whether these laws contribute to the health and well-being of the community.

Walter Brueggemann discusses the theme of Israel’s disobedience and divine pardon. Although Yahweh is known as a God who pardons the iniquity of his people, his pardon is not readily granted. Brueggemann declares that the issue of pardon is not a primary emphasis in Deuteronomy, for Israel was expected to obey the demands of the Law. The consequences of disobedience would be judgment and exile and Deuteronomy emphasizes that Yahweh was “unwilling to pardon” (Deut. 29:20) those who abandoned Yahweh to follow other gods This unwillingness to pardon was reaffirmed to Israel because of this sins of Manasseh. Brueggemann studies the biblical material to discover whether the concept of pardon was a theme in the theology of exile. At the end of his study, Brueggemann discovers that the biblical material concerning divine pardon goes from “absolute rejection . . . to a bid for repentance . . . through an insistence on the cruciality of obedience without pardon . . . to a full, unilateral pardon without reference to repentance” (p. 293).

These and the other essays contributed to this festschrift merit careful study for the contribution they make to Old Testament scholarship. The essays are a fitting recognition of the life and work of Patrick Miller and of the impact he has made on the life of his students and on those who admire his works.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Deuteronomy, Patrick Miller, Pentateuch