The Tenacity of Israel’s Faith

In my last post on the exile, I described the devastation of Judah caused by the Babylonian invasion and the anger and despair of the people as expressed in the book of Lamentations. When one considers the devastation caused by the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem, the destruction of the temple, and the deportation of the people to Babylon, one would expect that such a comprehensive devastation of a nation might bring about the end of their religious life. However, it did not.

The history of Israel during the Babylonian exile is very sketchy. Since the biblical sources do not provide enough information about Israel’s life in Babylon, it is difficult to recreate the conditions of the people in exile. The book of Kings ends with the destruction of Jerusalem to which an appendix was added to announce the release of Jehoiakim in 560 B.C., after thirty-seven years in prison, by Evil-merodach, the son and successor of Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings 25:27-30).

A sketchy history of the exile can be developed by compiling information from several different sources. The book of Chronicles ends with the fall of Jerusalem, although some of the narratives dealing with the temple and its cultic functionaries may reflect a post-exilic situation. An appendix to the book of Chronicles describes Cyrus’s proclamation giving liberty to the exiles (2 Chronicles 36:22-23). The writings of Ezekiel and Deutero-Isaiah also give a snapshot of life during the exile. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah deal with events that happened at the end of the exile, primarily the return of the Jewish people from Babylon and the rebuilding of the temple.

The people of Judah not only adapted to their circumstances, but they emerged from exile with a renewed sense of mission and with a new form of religious faith that developed through the adversity of life in Babylon. In fact, it was the suffering and affliction of the exile that forced the leaders of the nation to reevaluate their religious experience in Babylon, an act that eventually gave birth to Judaism.

There is no denial that many Judeans lost their faith in Yahweh, since they were unable to understand how the devastation of their nation fit into the faith they had come to embrace, a faith which declared that Yahweh was their protector and the one who fought for them. Many people were unable to reconcile the destruction of Jerusalem and of the temple by the Babylonian army with their view of the inviolability of Zion in a way that could preserve their faith.

The vast majority of Judeans, however, emerged from the ordeal of the exile with the belief that Yahweh had brought about the events that led to the destruction of the nation because of the disobedience of the people. They concluded that Yahweh had evoked the curses stipulated by the covenant and had exacted judgment and punishment on his people for their violation of the demands of the covenant. Although many Judeans were indignant with the initial devastation, a feeling expressed in the book of Lamentations, the people came to accept God’s judgment upon the nation. It was in the midst of the paroxysms of hopelessness that the people’s faith matured and they learned to accept the affliction they had suffered at the sovereign hand of their God.

The people who were deported to Babylon were deprived of the moorings that gave them their identity as the people of God. They were uprooted from their native land and taken to a pagan environment. They were removed from their cultural environment, from their place of worship, and from their ancestral land and forced to sing the songs of Zion in a foreign land (Psalm 137:4). Many of those who were forcibly taken to Babylon, died there and never again saw their homeland.

As a result of the exile, many changes took place in the religious and social life of Israel. There was a challenge for the people to change and to innovate if they were to survive as a people and as a nation. As a result of the exile, there were three main areas where changes precipitated radical results.

First, the monarchy had ceased to exist, and kingship was never reconstituted. The end of kingship challenged the divine promise that David’s dynasty would continue forever. The possible end of the Davidic dynasty created a crisis of credibility: Would God honor his promises to David?

Second, the temple was in ruins and the rituals carried on there were no more. The destruction of the temple was devastating to the religious faithful because they thought that the temple was inviolable. The destruction of the temple by the Babylonians shattered that theology. The destruction of the temple created a crisis of faith: How could God be worshiped without a temple?

Third, the land, which was considered holy, had been a unifying factor in the religious formation of the nation. However, as the result of the exile, Yahwism had been torn from its nation, cult, and land. As a result of the loss of the land, an important change took place in the people’s understanding of their God. The people understood that Yahweh was not a God localized within the boundaries of the land, but that he was a universal God, a God who also could be worshiped in Babylon.

Other changes took place in exile that would forever change the character and the nature of the people of Judah. The new generation of Judeans who were born in Babylon forgot their native language, Hebrew, and adopted Aramaic, the language of their conquerors, as their new language.

The exile revealed the tenacity of Israel’s faith. Deprived of the temple and of a holy city, the exile brought about the need for personal religious response. Religion became individualized and Jerusalem ceased to be the only place where the worship of God was possible.

The exile brought about the need for an agonizing reappraisal and refinement of their religious traditions. When the people were taken to Babylon, they took with them many records and documents that later were used to preserve their legal, historical, and religious traditions.

In exile a greater emphasis was placed on preserving their religious and cultural heritage in writing. The preservation of the ancient heritage of the nation included many of the traditions that were transmitted orally from generation to generation, the preaching of the prophets, the rituals of the temple, and the teachings of the priests. Canonical activity quickened in Babylon as holy books began to replace the holy temple. In exile, Israel became the people of the book.

Although the synagogues probably existed before the destruction of the temple, in exile the synagogue became a place for prayer, study, and local worship and it served as a temporary replacement for the temple in Jerusalem. The synagogue “contributed to the continuity of the Jewish people by maintaining a unique identity and a portable way of worship despite the destruction of the Temple.”

Finally, the exile brought about the need for a theological response to the events leading up to the exile. The people understood that Israel had been unable to keep the covenant. All three major prophets of the exile declared the need for a new kind of covenant, a new saving act of God. In exile there was the development of the idea of monotheism, remnant theology, and the concept of the suffering servant, an idea that grew out of the remnant concept.

Although living in a strange land, the people never forgot the heritage they left behind and Jerusalem remained in their thoughts and their hearts. The longing of the people for their native land was expressed by the words of the psalmist: “If I forget you, O Jerusalem, let my right hand wither! Let my tongue cling to the roof of my mouth, if I do not remember you, if I do not set Jerusalem above my highest joy” (Psalm 137:5-6).

In exile, many of the people maintained their distinctiveness as a people and it was this tenacity that saved the religious traditions of the nation and gave birth to Judaism. Also living in a foreign land, the exiles retained the belief that the land of Canaan was theirs. The people never abandoned the desire and the hope to return to the land that was given to them by God as their eternal inheritance.

The exile had a deep impact on the religious and cultural life of the people of Judah. The exile destroyed the belief in the inviolability of the temple. The exile produced the view of the universality of God and that he would be with his people even in a pagan land. The exile forced the people to reevaluate the view of the uniqueness of God and reject polytheism, the worship of images, and other pagan practices. In exile, faithful observance of the Sabbath, circumcision, and strict adherence to the Law became the signs of loyalty to God.

The exile produced reactions ranging from anger and despair to acceptance and hope. In an upcoming post, I will address the message of hope proclaimed by the exilic prophet known as Deutero-Isaiah.

Other Posts on the Exile:

The Babylonian Exile

The Lonely Widow


Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary


Tags: Babylon, Exile, Judaism

From Babylon to Baghdad

The Biblical Archaeology Review is offering a free e-book, From Babylon to Baghdad: Ancient Iraq and the Modern West, a book in which several writers examine the relationship between Iraq’s ancient past and our modern Western culture.

BAS has provided the following information promoting the book:

This latest publication from BAS comes at a time of great concern for Iraq's cultural heritage on the part of the archaeological community, which is outlined in a recent UNESCO report assessing the damage incurred to ancient sites and museums during the course of the Iraq war. From Babylon to Baghdad: Ancient Iraq and the Modern West examines the relationship between ancient Iraq and the cultures of modern Western societies. This collection of articles details some of the ways in which ancient Near Eastern civilizations have impressed themselves on our Western culture. It examines the evolving relationship that modern scholarship has with this part of the world, and chronicles the present-day fight to preserve Iraq's cultural heritage.

The book is available for free in PDF format. To download the book, click here.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Archaeology, Babylon, Baghdad, Iraq

The City of Babylon Has Been Reopened to the Public

According to an article published in The New York Times, the ancient city of Babylon has been opened to the public. The following is an excerpt from the article:

After decades of dictatorship and disrepair, Iraq is celebrating its renewed sovereignty over the Babylon archaeological site — by fighting over the place, over its past and future and, of course, over its spoils.

Time long ago eroded the sun-dried bricks that shaped ancient Babylon, the city of Hammurabi and Nebuchadnezzar, where Daniel read the writing on the wall and Alexander the Great died.

Now, the provincial government in Babil has seized control of much of Babylon — unlawfully, according to the State Board of Antiquities and Heritage — and opened a park beside a branch of the Euphrates River, a place that draws visitors by the busload.

The article also contains a slide show, presenting some of the remains of the ancient city of Babylon.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Babylon

Braking Iron and Bronze: Jeremiah's Second Lament

The six laments of Jeremiah, also known as “The Confessions of Jeremiah” (11:18-12:6; 15:10-21; 17:14-28; 18:18-23; 20:7-13; 20:14-18), provide an intimate look at the personal life of the prophet. Jeremiah’s complaints and his dialogues with God reflect the frustrations of Jeremiah in the discharge of his prophetic ministry and his unhappiness with the mission he received from God.

These laments reveal the inner struggle of the prophet as the result of the opposition he encountered from the people and from the religious and political leaders of Judah. They also reflect Jeremiah’s response to his family rejection of his work, the threats of violence against him, and the many plots against his life.

The historical situation that gave rise to these laments is debated by scholars. Many scholars believe that the laments were written during the reign of Jehoiakim, the king of Judah who opposed Jeremiah.

Jeremiah’s second lament is found in 15:10-21. In this lament Jeremiah wished that his mother had not given birth to him (Jeremiah 15:10), an indirect denunciation of his prophetic ministry, since Jeremiah believed he was called from birth to be a prophet (Jeremiah 1:5).

The date for this lament is debated. The lament comes just after Jeremiah was commanded by Yahweh not to pray for the people of Judah (Jeremiah 14:11), since the judgment againt the nation was inevitable. The lament may also reflect Jeremiah’s confrontation with the false prophets of Judah who were proclaiming a message that sought to discredit Jeremiah’s own message:

“The LORD said to me: ‘Do not pray for the welfare of this people. Although they fast, I do not hear their cry, and although they offer burnt offering and grain offering, I do not accept them; but by the sword, by famine, and by pestilence I consume them.’ Then I said: ‘Ah, Lord GOD! Here are the prophets saying to them, You shall not see the sword, nor shall you have famine, but I will give you true peace in this place.’ And the LORD said to me: ‘The prophets are prophesying lies in my name; I did not send them, nor did I command them or speak to them. They are prophesying to you a lying vision, worthless divination, and the deceit of their own minds’” (Jeremiah 14:11-14).

In light of Jeremiah’s dialogue with Yahweh in 14:11-14, it is possible to determine the occasion for the second lament. A clue for the occasion is found in the lament itself, that is, in Jeremiah 15:12.

Jeremiah 15:12 has been interpreted in different ways by scholars and this disagreement about the meaning of the text is reflected in the translations of the book of Jeremiah. Below is a small sample of the ways Jeremiah 15:12 has been translated:

“Shall iron be allied with the iron from the north, and the brass?” (DRA).

“Can one break iron, iron from the north, and bronze?” (ESV).

“Can iron break iron from the north and brass?” (JPS).

“Shall iron break the northern iron and the steel?” (KJV).

“Will iron be known? whereas thy strength is a brazen covering” (LXX).

“Can a man break iron-- iron from the north-- or bronze?” (NIV).

“Can a man break a bar of iron from the north, or a bar of bronze?” (NLT).

“Can iron and bronze break iron from the north?” (NRSV).

“Can iron break iron and bronze?” (TNK).

All these translations tend to make the subject of the verb “to breake” impersonal. In Hebrew the verb “break” (רעע) is third masculine singular with the interrogative particle. A literal translation of the verse in English would be as follow:

“Can he break iron, iron from the north, and bronze?”

This translation provides an important clue for the historical background of the second lament. The occasion for the lament was Jeremiah’s struggle with Hananiah.

The occasion for the confrontation between the two prophets was a conspiracy against Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. At the beginning of the reign of Zedekiah, several nations sent envoys to Zedekiah to invite him to join forces in their struggle against Babylon. At that time, Yahweh told Jeremiah to make a wooden yoke and put it on his neck as a sign that Judah should submit to the Babylonian yoke (Jeremiah 27:1-11).

When Jeremiah met Hananiah in the temple, Hananiah announced that Yahweh would break the yoke of the king of Babylon within two years (Jeremiah 28:2). To prove his point, Hananiah took the yoke off Jeremiah’s neck and broke it in the presence of those in attendance to affirm that his message was true (Jeremiah 28:10-11).

Rejected by the people and by the religious authorities, Jeremiah left the temple without saying a word. Some time later, Yahweh appeared again to Jeremiah and told him to make a yoke of iron:

“Go, tell Hananiah, ‘Thus says the LORD: You have broken wooden bars, but I will make in their place bars of iron’” (Jeremiah 28:13 RSV).

Hananiah could breake a wooden yoke, but could he break a yoke of iron? It is here that the words of God in Jeremiah’s lament make sense: “Can he break iron, iron from the north, and bronze? The proper understanding of God’s words in Jeremiah 15:12 require the identification of the three different components of the question.

“Can he break iron?”: This is a reference to Hananiah after he broke the wooden yoke from Jeremiah’s neck. Hananiah would not be able to break the yoke of iron God put on Jeremiah’s neck.

“[Can he break] iron from the north”: The iron from the north was Babylon. God had delivered the nations to Nebuchadnezzar and no one would be able to resist him. This is what Yahweh told Jeremiah: “I have put upon the neck of all these nations an iron yoke of servitude to Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, and they shall serve him” (Jeremiah 28:14).

“[Can he break] bronze”: The bronze is Jeremiah himself. Several times God promised Jeremiah that he would make him a “wall of bronze”:

“I have made you today a . . . bronze wall, against the whole land -- against the kings of Judah, its princes, its priests, and the people of the land. They will fight against you; but they shall not prevail against you, for I am with you” (Jeremiah 1:18-19).

“And I will make you to this people a fortified wall of bronze; they will fight against you, but they shall not prevail over you, for I am with you to save you and deliver you, says the LORD. I will deliver you out of the hand of the wicked, and redeem you from the grasp of the ruthless” (Jeremiah 15:20-21).

So, the second lament may indeed reflect Jeremiah’s struggle with Hananiah. Hananiah had broken the wooden yoke that God had placed on Jeremiah’s neck, but as a result of his action, he had forged in its place a yoke of iron which he would be unable to break

The yoke of iron that Yahweh imposed upon Judah was an invocation of the curse of the covenant because of Israel’s unwillingness to obey the demands of the covenant:

“Because you did not serve the LORD your God joyfully and with gladness of heart for the abundance of everything, therefore you shall serve your enemies whom the LORD will send against you, in hunger and thirst, in nakedness and lack of everything. He will put an iron yoke on your neck until he has destroyed you” (Deuteronomy 28:47-48).


Other Studies on Jeremiah and Hananiah:

1. Jeremiah and Hananiah

2. Jeremiah and Hananiah: The Historical Context

3. Jeremiah and Hananiah: Jeremiah’s Ministry

4. Jeremiah and Hananiah: The Confrontation in the Temple

5. Jeremiah and Hananiah: True and False Prophecy in Israel


Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Babylon, Confessions of Jeremiah, Hananiah, Jeremiah, Nabuchadnezzar

A New Inscription Mentioning Nabonidus, King of Babylon

Image: Nabonidus praying to the sun, moon, and Venus





Alan Lenzi at Bible and Ancient Near East is reporting that archaeologists have found a new inscription mentioning the name of Nabonidus (Nabû-na’id), king of Babylon.

According to Alan’s blog, this cuneiform text was discovered in the oasis of Tayma (Saudi Arabia) near a building which has been tentatively identified as a temple.

Nabonidus (556-539 B.C.) was the last king of Babylon. Babylon fell to Cyrus, king of Persia in 539 B.C. In the last ten years of his reign, Nabonidus lived at Tayma from where he ruled Babylon.

Because Nabonidus favored the moon god Sin, the priests of Marduk, the main god of Babylon, revolted against Nabonidus. Nabonidus departed Babylon to Tayma and left his son Belshazzar to govern the city as a coregent. Belshazzar is mentioned in the 5th chapter of the book of Daniel

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Babylon, Belshazzar, Daniel, Nabonidus, Tayma

For Sale: Clay Cylinder of Nebuchadnezzar II, King of Babylon (605-562 B.C.)

Description: Oldest Book - from 605-562 B.C. Large Clay Cylinder of Nebuchadnezzar II, King of Babylon 605-562 B.C. Royal Proclamation of his re-building-to-perfection efforts of the Temple E-barra/E-ulla at Sippar (in ancient country of Babylonia). Nebuchadnezzar II was famous for: The Tower of Babel, The Stepped Pyramid (Ziggurat) & The Hanging Gardens, etc. All for his God Marduk. 8 1/4" high, filled with cuneiform writing. Full translation & documentation included. Fine original condition, no damage. $1,750,000. Bookseller Inventory # 000028

See a photo of the cylinder here.

At this price, I may buy at least two cylinders.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar

Babylon: Its History and Art

Photo: The Tower of Babel


The British Museum will open an exhibition on Babylon next month. In order to introduce the exhibition, Times Online has published a good article on Babylon, describing some of the myths and legends the city of Babylon has generated in history and in art. The following is an excerpt from the article:

No city has been demonised quite like Babylon, nor any king so denounced as the incarnation of evil as Nebuchadnezzar. Neither the scriptures nor the myths have spared them: for more than 2,000 years Babylon has been a byword for vice, excess and well-deserved ruin while legend has created a ruler consumed by pride, folly and cruelty.

Yet Babylon was once the cultured capital of a flourishing empire, majestic in its architecture, rich in works of art and peopled by thinkers who pioneered mathematical and astronomical concepts still valid today. Nebuchadnezzar, its greatest and most ambitious king, was a man who changed the course of world history from a capital whose ruins remain in the parched Iraqi desert.

The name Babylon still has the power to fascinate. We think of the Hanging Gardens, the Tower of Babel, the Babylonian Captivity and the city’s infamous fall. For more than 1,000 years, painters and story-tellers have embellished the biblical denunciations of the city in the Book of Daniel and the Book of Revelation with vivid warnings to the Western world. In 1498 Albrecht Dürer depicted the “Whore of Babylon” as a harridan riding a seven-headed beast.

The article seeks to study whether Babylon deserve its legendary reputation for depravity. Read the article by clicking here.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Babel, Babylon, Tower of Babel, Ziggurat

Babylon and the War in Iraq

A recent video released by the National Geographic News shows how the ancient city of Babylon has been damage by American and Polish military forces as a result of the war in Iraq.

Watch the video by visiting the National Geographic News .

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Babylon

For Sale: Authentic Babylonian Antiquities

Myers University in Cleveland, Ohio is going out of business. The school is selling its assets, including a collection of Babylonian antiquities.

The artifacts for sale include the following:

Two clay jugs, some carved stones and dozens of tablets carved with Sumerian words.

Forty-two neo-Sumerian texts, engraved on tablets that served as early versions of receipts.

An Old Akkadian cylinder seal.

Two Nippur incantation bowls.

Several cone-shaped items that came from outside the palace of Sinkashid, king of Uruk.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Antiquities, Archaeology, Babylon

Ancient Babylonian City Found

Iraqi archaeologists have announced that they have discovered the remains of an ancient Babylonian city located 180 kilometers south of Baghdad. According to archeologists, the site is more than 20,000 square meters in area. Some of the remains discovered at the site include administrative quarters, temples, and other buildings which archaeologists describe as of “magnificent and splendid design.”

Archaeologists have been unable to identify the name of the ancient Babylonian city, but they believe that it belonged to the Late Babylonian Period, about 1000 BC. Archaeologists also discovered several cuneiform tablets. However, they were unable to read the tablets because those archaeologists who could read cuneiform have left Iraq.

To read the news release, click here.

It is a shame that the remains of this ancient Babylonian city cannot be studied by experts. Hopefully, some Western scholars will be invited to visit the site and analyze the findings, specially the cuneiform tablets, and make the results available for scholarly research.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Babylon, Cuneiform

Jeremiah 39:3 and the Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet

In his post on Nebo-Sarsekim, “ The mystery of Nabu-sharrussu-ukin,” Chris Heard makes several important points which I want to address briefly in this post.

First, Chris asks: which version is correct, the NIV or the NRSV and the NJPSV? As I mentioned in my first post, all versions struggle with the Babylonian names, so, it is doubtful that the NRSV is better than the NIV in this case. Chris asks:

would it be appropriate to use the tablet to "correct" translations like the NRSV and NJPSV that read "Samgar-nebo, Sarsekim" rather than "Samgar, Nebo-sarsekim"?

Why not, if in this case the NRSV is wrong? In the past I have taken the NRSV against the NIV, but in this case I take the NIV against the NRSV. Even Chris leans “toward the NIV against the NRSV and NJPSV on the translation of the list of officials’ names.”

Second, Chris is puzzled with the presence of two Nergal-sharezers in Jeremiah 39:3. Since these two Nergal-sharezers have different titles, they probably were two different people working for the king of Babylon.

Third, Chris warns us that maybe the Nebo-Sarsekim of the clay tablet may not be the same Nebo-Sarsekim of Jeremiah 39:3. This is a fair assumption because if there were two Nergal-sharezers in Babylon, it is also possible that there was more than one Nebo-Sarsekim.

Many of the other issues raised by Chris have been addressed by Jack R. Lundbom in his commentary, Jeremiah 37-52 (The Anchor Bible; New York: Doubleday, 2004), 84-85.

Below I quote Lundbom’s comments in full. All the emphases are his; the abbreviations from works cited are quoted as they appear in the commentary. Those who want to read the works cited by Lundbom should consult his commentary. Lindbom wrote:

Nergalsharerer the Samgar, Nebusanechim the Rab-saris, Nergalsharezer the Rab-mag. Difficulty in rendering these Babylonian names shows up already in the Versions, which betray uncertainty about components and a general unawareness that names are followed by titles. What we have are three names with titles (Bogaert 1990: 317), the same number–but not all the same persons–as in v 13. If one were to read MT's hyphenated samgar-nebu as a separate name, which is possible (= Akk Sinmagir-Nabu), the names and individuals would then be four: Nergal-sharezer, Samgar-nebu, Sarsechim the Rab-saris, and Nergal-sharezer the Rab-mag (compare RSV, NJV, and NJB). But a contemporary cuneiform text suggests that samgar is a title for Nergal-sharezer (see below), leaving nebu a component of the following name. The samgar-nebu of MT is then incorrect.

Nergalsharezer the Samgar. Nergalsharezer is a Hebraicized form of Akk Nergal-sar-usur (Neriglissar). This individual, or else Nergalsharezer the Rab- mag cited here and in v 13, is likely the one who later seized the throne from Nebuchadrezzar's successor, Amelmarduk, and reigned from 560 to 556 B.C. (Bright 1965: 243; 1981: 352-53). Hebrew samgar (=Akk simmagir [sin-magir]) is the title of a high official, or else a place-name (CAD 15: 272-73; AHw 2: 1045). The consensus now is that samgar belongs with the prior name, which in Akk yields either Nergal-sar-user, the Sin-magir (high official), or Nergal- sar-user from Sin-magir (Bewer 1925-26). An individual so designated has come to light in "The Court of Nebuchadnezzar” document (ANET 308), where also the Nebuzaradan mentioned in vv. 9-14 is listed. Some commentators (Giesebrecht; Rudolph; Bright; Holladay; Jones; McKane) suggest that the two Nergalsharezers are only one person, but that view is to be rejected. These are two individuals with the same name (Kimhi), cited here with different titles in order to distinguish one from the other.

Nebusarsechim the Rab-saris. The now-expanded name of Nebusarsechim has support in LXX's Nabousachar. The component in MT is "Nebu" (as in Nebuchadrezzar), not "Nebo," as appears in Isa 46:l. Both are equivalent to Akk Nabu (= god). The Rab-saris ("chief of the eunuchs") is another title for a high state official.

Nergalsharezer the Rab-mag. The term rab-mag is a Hebraicized form of Akk rab mugi, the title of a high military official (mugu in CAD 10/2:171; Ahw 2:667; KB [3rd ed.]; its meaning, at least here, is not “chief astrologer/sootsayer” (pace BDB, 550; NJB). The term has turned up in an economic memoradum from the Sippar temple records (BM 49656:3), where the Nabopolassar’s accession reference is made to “the accountant of the rab magu” (Wiseman 1956:94).

The Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet was found among financial records unearthed in the ancient city of Sippar. It is not a coincidence that, according to Lundbom, the title of Nergalsharezer the Rab-mag and the name of Nebuzaradan also appear in documents found in the temple at Sippar.

Chris has a point: the Nebo-Sarsekim of the tablet may not be the same Nebo-Sarsekim of Jeremiah 39:3. But one thing is sure: the name Nebo-Sarsekim is not a name invented by some post-exilic theologian writing an invented history of Israel.

Previous posts on this topic::

The Book of Jeremiah and A New Archaeological Discovery

The Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Babylon, Jeremiah, Nebo-Sarsekim, Michael Jursa

The Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet

In my previous post on the Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet, I mentioned that Nebo-Sarsekim was the same individual mentioned in Jeremiah 39:3.

Peter Kirk alerted me to an article in The Telegraph that provides a photo and a full translation of the tablet.

According to the article in The Telegraph, the full translation of the
tablet reads as follows:

(Regarding) 1.5 minas (0.75 kg) of gold, the property of Nabu-sharrussu-ukin,the chief eunuch, which he sent via Arad-Banitu the eunuch to [the temple]Esangila: Arad-Banitu has delivered [it] to Esangila. In the presence of Bel-usat, son of Alpaya, the royal bodyguard, [and of] Nadin,son of Marduk-zer-ibni. Month XI, day 18, year 10 [of] Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon.

The tablet is dated to the 10th year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, 595 B.C.E., two years after the deportation of Jehoiachin, King of Judah. This date is very important. As Peter wrote:

Also the date on the tablet, the tenth year of Nebuchadnezzar, is two years after Nebuchadnezzar first sacked the temple in Jerusalem and took all the gold from it, 2 Kings 24:13. So the gold mentioned in this tablet could well have been Nebo-Sarsekim's share of the spoil from Jerusalem.

Credits:

I want to thank Peter Kirk for leading me to the article in The Telegraph.

The translation of the Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet appeared in The Telegraph.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Babylon, Jeremiah, Nebo-Sarsekim, Nebuchadnezzar

The Book of Jeremiah and A New Archaeological Discovery

According to the book of Jeremiah 39:1-3, in the ninth year of Zedekiah, king of Judah, in the tenth month, in the tenth day of the month, the army of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, came to Jerusalem and besieged the city.

Two and a half years later, that is, in the eleventh year of Zedekiah, in the fourth month, the Babylonians broke through the walls of the city and Jerusalem fell. When Jerusalem fell, the officers of the Babylonian army came in and sat in triumph at the Middle Gate.

The versions differ in translating the names of the officers of the Babylonian army. The following are some of the translations of Jeremiah 39:3:

The English Standard Version (ESV)

Jeremiah 39:3 Then all the officials of the king of Babylon came and sat in the middle gate: Nergal-sar-ezer, Samgar-nebu, Sar-sekim the Rab-saris, Nergal-sar-ezer the Rab-mag, with all the rest of the officers of the king of Babylon.

The King James Version (KJV)

Jeremiah 39:3 And all the princes of the king of Babylon came in, and sat in the middle gate, even Nergalsharezer, Samgarnebo, Sarsechim, Rabsaris, Nergalsharezer, Rabmag, with all the residue of the princes of the king of Babylon.

The New American Bible (NAB)

Jeremiah 39:3 All the princes of the king of Babylon came and occupied the middle gate: Nergal-sharezer, of Simmagir, the chief officer, Nebushazban, the high dignitary, and all the other princes of the king of Babylon....

The New International Version (NIV)

Jeremiah 39:3 Then all the officials of the king of Babylon came and took seats in the Middle Gate: Nergal-Sharezer of Samgar, Nebo-Sarsekim a chief officer, Nergal-Sharezer a high official and all the other officials of the king of Babylon.

The New Living Translation (NLT)

Jeremiah 39:3 All the officers of the Babylonian army came in and sat in triumph at the Middle Gate: Nergal-sharezer of Samgar, and Nebo-sarsekim, a chief officer, and Nergal-sharezer, the king's adviser, and many others.

Note how the versions deal with the names:

The ESV has four officers: Nergal-sar-ezer, Samgar-nebu, Sar-sekim the Rab-saris, and Nergal-sar-ezer the Rab-mag.

The KJV has six officers: Nergalsharezer, Samgarnebo, Sarsechim, Rabsaris, Nergalsharezer, and Rabmag.

The NAB has two officers: Nergal-sharezer, of Simmagir, the chief officer, and Nebushazban, the high dignitary.

The NIV has three officers: Nergal-Sharezer of Samgar, Nebo-Sarsekim a chief officer, and Nergal-Sharezer a high official.

The NLT has three officers: Nergal-sharezer of Samgar, Nebo-sarsekim, a chief officer, and Nergal-sharezer, the king's adviser.

Of these translations, only the NIV and NLT seems to be correct. Most scholars today believe that Samgar is the name of a place and that Nebo-Saserkim is the name of one of the army officers. The NIV and NLT follow the Septuagint. The Septuagint translates the name of the army officer as Nabusachar.

This reading is now confirmed by the translation of a new clay tablet found in the British Museum. The following is an excerpt of the news release published by Timesonline.com:

The British Museum yesterday hailed a discovery within a modest clay tablet in its collection as a breakthrough for biblical archaeology - dramatic proof of the accuracy of the Old Testament.

The cuneiform inscription in a tablet dating from 595BC has been deciphered for the first time - revealing a reference to an official at the court of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, that proves the historical existence of a figure mentioned in the Book of Jeremiah.

This is rare evidence in a nonbiblical source of a real person, other than kings, featured in the Bible.

The tablet names a Babylonian officer called Nebo-Sarsekim, who according to Jeremiah xxxix was present in 587BC when Nebuchadnezzar "marched against Jerusalem with his whole army and laid siege to it".

The cuneiform inscription records how Nebo-Sarsekim lavished a gift of gold on the Temple of Esangila in the fabled city of Babylon, where, at least in folk tradition, Nebuchadnezzar is credited with building the Hanging Gardens, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. British Museum staff are excited by the discovery. Irving Finkel, assistant keeper in the Department of the Middle East, said: "A mundane commercial transaction takes its place as a primary witness to one of the turning points in Old Testament history. This is a tablet that deserves to be famous."

The discovery was made by Michael Jursa, associate professor at the University of Vienna, on a routine research trip to the museum. "It's very exciting and very surprising," he said. "Finding something like this tablet, where we see a person mentioned in the Bible making an everyday payment to the temple in Babylon and quoting the exact date, is quite extraordinary."

Since 1991, Dr Jursa has been visiting the museum to study a collection of more than 100,000 inscribed tablets - the world's largest holdings. Although they are examined by international scholars daily, reading and piecing together fragments is painstaking work and more than half are yet to be published.

Cuneiform is the oldest known form of writing. During its 3,000-year history it was used to write about 15 languages including Babylonian, Assyrian, Hittite and Urartian. A wedged instrument - usually a cut reed - was used to press the signs into clay. This gave the writing system its name, "cuneiform", or wedge-shaped.

There are only a small number of scholars worldwide who can read cuneiform script. One of them is Dr Jursa, who told The Times yesterday that the British Museum tablet was so well preserved that it took him just a couple of minutes to decipher.

This one - which is 2.13 inches (5.5cm) wide - was acquired by the British Museum in 1920. Dr Jursa said: "But no one realised the connection. They didn't really read it."

It was unearthed from the ancient city of Sippar, where there was a huge sun temple, just over a mile from modern-day Baghdad. It was part of a large temple archive excavated for the British Museum in the 1870s.

Dr Jursa, who made the discovery while conducting research into officials at the Babylonian court, said that the tablet recorded Nebo-Sarsekim's gift of gold to the temple - a gift so large that it would be comparable in value today to the cost of a large townhouse.

On hearing of the discovery yesterday, Geza Vermes, the eminent emeritus professor of Jewish studies at the University of Oxford, said that such a discovery revealed that "the Biblical story is not altogether invented". He added: "This will be interesting for religious people as much as historians."

It is great day when archaeological findings confirm what we already knew: that the events and people in the Bible have a true historical background.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Babylon, Jeremiah, Nebuchadnezzar