More on the Tell Ta’yinat Discovery

National Geographic News has an article describing the findings at Tell Ta’yinat. The following are two excerpts from the article:

An ancient temple in Turkey has been found filled with broken metal, ivory carvings, and stone slabs engraved with a dead language.

The find is casting new light on the "dark age" that was thought to have engulfed the region from 1200 to 900 B.C.

Written sources from the era-including the Old Testament of the Bible, Greek Homeric epics, and texts from Egyptian pharaoh Ramses III-record the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age as a turbulent period of cultural collapse, famine, and violence.

But the newfound temple suggests that may not have been the case, say archaeologists from the University of Toronto's Tayinat Archaeological Project, led by Timothy Harrison.

"We're beginning to find new archaeological evidence that there was a continuation of writing traditions, as well as cultural and political continuity from the Bronze Age into this Iron Age period," Harrison said.

"We are filling in a cultural and a political history of this era."

******

Researchers initially examined the remains of the temple's southern entrance, which includes a stone-paved courtyard, a wide staircase, and a doorway once supported by an ornately carved column.

The team also found the smashed remains of massive stelae-commemorative stone slabs-carved with hieroglyphs in Luwian, an extinct language once spoken throughout what is now Turkey.

The temple's main room was long ago damaged by fire, but it was found littered with the remains of bronze and ivory wall or furniture fittings, along with gold and silver foil and the carved eye inlay from a human figurine.

The article contains a photo of the remains of the temple discovered at Tell Tayinat

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Luwian, Tell Tayinat

Braking Iron and Bronze: Jeremiah's Second Lament

The six laments of Jeremiah, also known as “The Confessions of Jeremiah” (11:18-12:6; 15:10-21; 17:14-28; 18:18-23; 20:7-13; 20:14-18), provide an intimate look at the personal life of the prophet. Jeremiah’s complaints and his dialogues with God reflect the frustrations of Jeremiah in the discharge of his prophetic ministry and his unhappiness with the mission he received from God.

These laments reveal the inner struggle of the prophet as the result of the opposition he encountered from the people and from the religious and political leaders of Judah. They also reflect Jeremiah’s response to his family rejection of his work, the threats of violence against him, and the many plots against his life.

The historical situation that gave rise to these laments is debated by scholars. Many scholars believe that the laments were written during the reign of Jehoiakim, the king of Judah who opposed Jeremiah.

Jeremiah’s second lament is found in 15:10-21. In this lament Jeremiah wished that his mother had not given birth to him (Jeremiah 15:10), an indirect denunciation of his prophetic ministry, since Jeremiah believed he was called from birth to be a prophet (Jeremiah 1:5).

The date for this lament is debated. The lament comes just after Jeremiah was commanded by Yahweh not to pray for the people of Judah (Jeremiah 14:11), since the judgment againt the nation was inevitable. The lament may also reflect Jeremiah’s confrontation with the false prophets of Judah who were proclaiming a message that sought to discredit Jeremiah’s own message:

“The LORD said to me: ‘Do not pray for the welfare of this people. Although they fast, I do not hear their cry, and although they offer burnt offering and grain offering, I do not accept them; but by the sword, by famine, and by pestilence I consume them.’ Then I said: ‘Ah, Lord GOD! Here are the prophets saying to them, You shall not see the sword, nor shall you have famine, but I will give you true peace in this place.’ And the LORD said to me: ‘The prophets are prophesying lies in my name; I did not send them, nor did I command them or speak to them. They are prophesying to you a lying vision, worthless divination, and the deceit of their own minds’” (Jeremiah 14:11-14).

In light of Jeremiah’s dialogue with Yahweh in 14:11-14, it is possible to determine the occasion for the second lament. A clue for the occasion is found in the lament itself, that is, in Jeremiah 15:12.

Jeremiah 15:12 has been interpreted in different ways by scholars and this disagreement about the meaning of the text is reflected in the translations of the book of Jeremiah. Below is a small sample of the ways Jeremiah 15:12 has been translated:

“Shall iron be allied with the iron from the north, and the brass?” (DRA).

“Can one break iron, iron from the north, and bronze?” (ESV).

“Can iron break iron from the north and brass?” (JPS).

“Shall iron break the northern iron and the steel?” (KJV).

“Will iron be known? whereas thy strength is a brazen covering” (LXX).

“Can a man break iron-- iron from the north-- or bronze?” (NIV).

“Can a man break a bar of iron from the north, or a bar of bronze?” (NLT).

“Can iron and bronze break iron from the north?” (NRSV).

“Can iron break iron and bronze?” (TNK).

All these translations tend to make the subject of the verb “to breake” impersonal. In Hebrew the verb “break” (רעע) is third masculine singular with the interrogative particle. A literal translation of the verse in English would be as follow:

“Can he break iron, iron from the north, and bronze?”

This translation provides an important clue for the historical background of the second lament. The occasion for the lament was Jeremiah’s struggle with Hananiah.

The occasion for the confrontation between the two prophets was a conspiracy against Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. At the beginning of the reign of Zedekiah, several nations sent envoys to Zedekiah to invite him to join forces in their struggle against Babylon. At that time, Yahweh told Jeremiah to make a wooden yoke and put it on his neck as a sign that Judah should submit to the Babylonian yoke (Jeremiah 27:1-11).

When Jeremiah met Hananiah in the temple, Hananiah announced that Yahweh would break the yoke of the king of Babylon within two years (Jeremiah 28:2). To prove his point, Hananiah took the yoke off Jeremiah’s neck and broke it in the presence of those in attendance to affirm that his message was true (Jeremiah 28:10-11).

Rejected by the people and by the religious authorities, Jeremiah left the temple without saying a word. Some time later, Yahweh appeared again to Jeremiah and told him to make a yoke of iron:

“Go, tell Hananiah, ‘Thus says the LORD: You have broken wooden bars, but I will make in their place bars of iron’” (Jeremiah 28:13 RSV).

Hananiah could breake a wooden yoke, but could he break a yoke of iron? It is here that the words of God in Jeremiah’s lament make sense: “Can he break iron, iron from the north, and bronze? The proper understanding of God’s words in Jeremiah 15:12 require the identification of the three different components of the question.

“Can he break iron?”: This is a reference to Hananiah after he broke the wooden yoke from Jeremiah’s neck. Hananiah would not be able to break the yoke of iron God put on Jeremiah’s neck.

“[Can he break] iron from the north”: The iron from the north was Babylon. God had delivered the nations to Nebuchadnezzar and no one would be able to resist him. This is what Yahweh told Jeremiah: “I have put upon the neck of all these nations an iron yoke of servitude to Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, and they shall serve him” (Jeremiah 28:14).

“[Can he break] bronze”: The bronze is Jeremiah himself. Several times God promised Jeremiah that he would make him a “wall of bronze”:

“I have made you today a . . . bronze wall, against the whole land -- against the kings of Judah, its princes, its priests, and the people of the land. They will fight against you; but they shall not prevail against you, for I am with you” (Jeremiah 1:18-19).

“And I will make you to this people a fortified wall of bronze; they will fight against you, but they shall not prevail over you, for I am with you to save you and deliver you, says the LORD. I will deliver you out of the hand of the wicked, and redeem you from the grasp of the ruthless” (Jeremiah 15:20-21).

So, the second lament may indeed reflect Jeremiah’s struggle with Hananiah. Hananiah had broken the wooden yoke that God had placed on Jeremiah’s neck, but as a result of his action, he had forged in its place a yoke of iron which he would be unable to break

The yoke of iron that Yahweh imposed upon Judah was an invocation of the curse of the covenant because of Israel’s unwillingness to obey the demands of the covenant:

“Because you did not serve the LORD your God joyfully and with gladness of heart for the abundance of everything, therefore you shall serve your enemies whom the LORD will send against you, in hunger and thirst, in nakedness and lack of everything. He will put an iron yoke on your neck until he has destroyed you” (Deuteronomy 28:47-48).


Other Studies on Jeremiah and Hananiah:

1. Jeremiah and Hananiah

2. Jeremiah and Hananiah: The Historical Context

3. Jeremiah and Hananiah: Jeremiah’s Ministry

4. Jeremiah and Hananiah: The Confrontation in the Temple

5. Jeremiah and Hananiah: True and False Prophecy in Israel


Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Babylon, Confessions of Jeremiah, Hananiah, Jeremiah, Nabuchadnezzar

Earth: A Billion Miles Away

Photo: NASA

NASA has released a collection of the best pictures of the Earth.

The picture above was taken by instruments aboard of the Cassini spacecraft. It shows Saturn and its rings–and the Earth, almost a billion miles away, as a small dot in space.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Earth, NASA, Saturn

Books To Be Reviewed

In the past few weeks I have received several books which authors and publishes want me to read and evaluate. These are the books I will be reading and reviewing in the coming weeks:

Michael D. Coogan, A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.

Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton, A Survey of the Old Testament. 3rd Edition. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009.

David L. Nichols, Understanding the Old Testament: A Narrative Summary. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing, 2008.

Daniel Unsealed. The Prophecy Society, 2009.

I want to thank the publishers and authors of these books for sending me their books. Publishers and new authors need to expose their books to a wider audience. I am happy to accept the invitation to evaluate their books and review them in my blog.

My policy as a reviewer is that I will evaluate the merits of each book in an honest and open way. The most important task for a reviewer is to inform the reader about the content of the book and the contribution it makes to biblical studies.

In the end, the reader wants to know whether to invest their money in buying a book and whether the book is worth reading. Thus, in my evaluation and review of books, I take the side of readers and let them know whether they should buy the book.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Books, Reviews

Deborah: A Mother in Israel

The Song of Deborah (Judges 5:1-31) is a masterpiece of Old Testament poetry because of the vivid imagery by which the song portrays Israel’s victory against the Canaanite army. Through this song of triumph, Deborah and the people of Israel celebrated their liberation from the oppression they suffered for twenty years (Judges 4:3).

The narrative section of the story of Deborah (Judges 4:1-24) presents her as a prophetess and a judge. The Song of Deborah introduces Deborah as “a mother in Israel” (Judges 5:7). Although the book of Judges mentioned that Deborah was married to a man named Lappidoth (4:4), there is no mention, both in the narrative and in the song, that Deborah had any children.

Although verse 5:7 is difficult to translate, the verse clearly indicates that because of the oppression under Jabin, the people of Israel suffered under the Canaanite yoke until Deborah arose as a leader in Israel. Under her leadership the oppression was broken and the people were set free from Canaanite oppression. An examination of a few translations reveals the problems in translating Judges 5:7:

“The mighty men in Israel failed, they failed until Debbora arose, until she arose a mother in Israel” (LXX).

“The villages in Israel were no more, they were no more until you arose, O Deborah, until you arose, mother of Israel!” (NJB).

“There were few people left in the villages of Israel -- until Deborah arose as a mother for Israel” (NLT).

“Deliverance ceased, Ceased in Israel, Till you arose, O Deborah, Arose, O mother, in Israel!” (TNK).

This verse indicates that the people of Israel were suffering greatly until Deborah arose to lead the forces of Israel against Siserah’s army. Thus, the deliverance of Israel happened when Deborah arose as “a mother in Israel.” In this act of deliverance, Barak is not even mentioned.

In Judges 5, Deborah appears as the commander of Israel’s military force. Barak, on the other hand, appears as someone who is under Deborah’s command. The superiority of Deborah over Barak is seen in the way she is portrayed in the song. In the Song of Deborah, Deborah is mentioned four times (5:1, 7, 12, 15), while Barak is mentioned only three (5:1, 12, 15). However, Barak always appears associated with Deborah, never by himself, and each time he appears in the text, he does so as a secondary character.

For instance, Judges 5:1 says that on the day of victory Deborah and Barak sang a song celebrating Israel’s victory against the Canaanites. However, the verb “sang” is 3rd person feminine, probably indicating that Deborah was the main character singing the song (although Gesenius [146g] says that the feminine form of the verb generally occurs in a sentence composed of a feminine and a masculine noun).

The preeminence of Deborah is also seen in v. 3 where the pronoun “I” appears three times (in Hebrew): “Give attention, O kings; give ear, O rulers; I, even I, will make a song to the Lord; I will make melody to the Lord, the God of Israel.” The first person singular pronoun is also found in verses 9, 13, and 21.

In Judges 5:12 Deborah again is asked to sing a song calling the people into battle. In her song Deborah calls Barak to gather the people and fight against the Canaanite army.

“Awake, awake, Deborah! Awake, awake, sing a song! Arise, Barak, and lead your captives away, O son of Abinoam!”

Deborah’s song is a command to Barak to stand up and call the Israelite militia into battle. In this verse Deborah is doing the call and Barak is the recipient of the call.

In addition, the fourfold repetition of “awake” in 5:12 is similar to calls to Yahweh to fight against the enemies of Israel:

“Awake, awake, put on strength, O arm of the LORD!
Awake, as in days of old, the generations of long ago!” (Isaiah 51:9).

The expression “Awake, awake, O arm of the LORD!” is a cry for help in which a humiliated people in their time of trouble call on Yahweh to deliver them. In the book of Judges, Deborah receives a similar call because she was acting on behalf of Yahweh to deliver Israel. In their distress, the people call on God’s prophetess to intervene on their behalf.

This intervention happened when Deborah commanded Barak to fight: “Arise, Barak, and lead your captives away, O son of Abinoam!” Deborah’s summons to Barak motivated the leaders of the tribes and the people to come into the battlefield: “Then down marched the remnant of the noble; the people of the LORD marched down for me against the mighty” (Judges 5:13). The repetition of the expression “marched down” indicates that the people of Israel had taken refuge in the hill country and now were coming down to fight in the valley of Kishon.

Judges 5:15 indicates that Deborah was leading the army into military combat: “And the princes of Issachar were with Deborah; even Issachar, and also Barak: he was sent on foot into the valley.” This declaration that the chiefs of the clans of Issachar were with Deborah indicates that Deborah was taking the leadership of the military operation. It is at the word of Deborah that the leaders of Issachar join Barak to fight against the Canaanites.

The title “A Mother in Israel” then seems to indicate that Deborah had the primary leadership in the fight against the army of Sisera. It was to Deborah that the leaders of Issachar came (v. 15); it was Deborah who sent Barak into battle (v. 12), it was because of Deborah that the oppression in Israel ceased (v. 7), and it was Deborah who celebrated with song the victory against the enemies (v.1).

The Song of Deborah begins by declaring that the leaders of the tribes and the people answered the call to fight and offered themselves willing to take arms against the Canaanites (v. 2, 9). These two verses indicate that the Israelite army was composed of people who volunteered themselves to fight. In view of the dedication of the people to fight against the army of Sisera, Deborah said: “My heart goes out to the commanders of Israel who offered themselves willingly among the people. Bless the LORD” (Judges 5:9). Deborah’s poignant declaration that her heart went out to those who gave themselves to save their nation shows how much Deborah was personally involved in this war of liberation.

In the war ideology that existed in Israel, Yahweh was the divine warrior that led Israel into battle. Since Deborah was a mother in Israel, she was Yahweh’s representative in Israel who led the nation into war.

The declaration that Deborah was “A Mother of Israel” in 5:7 is related to the statement in 5:5 where Yahweh is called “The God of Israel.” The poetical structure of the two verses, the repetition of the phrases “before the LORD” in v. 5 and “until you arose” in v.7, and the identification of Yahweh as the God of Israel and Deborah as a mother in Israel indicate that there is a close relationship with the verses, maybe to emphasize that Deborah was God’s representative in Israel.

The expression “a mother in Israel” also appears in 2 Samuel 20:19 where the wise woman of Abel said to Joab: “You seek to destroy a city that is a mother in Israel. Why will you swallow up the heritage of the LORD?”

The context of this expression was Sheba’s revolt against David. Sheba, the son of Bichri, was a Benjaminite who led a revolt against David by calling on the Northern tribes to break away from alliance with David (2 Samuel 20:1-2). In response, David sent Joab to kill Sheba. Sheba took refuse in the city of Abel Beth-Maacah (2 Samuel 20:15). Joab besieged the city but the attack was halted when a wise woman confronted Joab and asked him:

“They used to say in former times, ‘Let them but ask counsel at Abel,’ and so they settled a matter. I am one of those who are peaceable and faithful in Israel. You seek to destroy a city that is a mother in Israel. Why will you swallow up the heritage of the LORD?” (2 Samuel 20:18-19).

Abel Beth-Maacah was called “a mother in Israel” because people went there to ask counsel and settled their disputes. In the same way, since Deborah as a judge and prophetess had the gift of mediation, people went to her to ask for counsel and to settle disputes.

Deborah became known as “a mother in Israel” because she was regarded by the people of Israel as a woman of exceptional character, a woman who used her skills to help the people and to defend her nation, a woman who identified with the people in their suffering, and a woman whose strong leadership aroused the leaders of the tribes of Israel to resist their oppressors, and whose enthusiasm inspired the people to rise up to fight for their nation.

REFERENCE: Susan Ackerman, Warrior, Dancer, Seductress, Queen: Women in Judges and Biblical Israel (The Anchor Bible Reference Library; New York: Doubleday, 1998), 27-88.


Other Posts on Deborah:

Deborah: Prophetess and Judge

Deborah: A Judge in Israel

Deborah the Prophetess

Deborah and Jael (forthcoming).


Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Barak, Deborah, Song of Deborah,

Great Sex for You

Preaching about “great sex.”

Read what happened to a church in Florida when the pastor decided to preach a series of sermon titled “Great Sex for You” by clicking here.

Although I believe the church should preach about sex, “Great Sex for You” may not be the best sermons to motivate you to worship God.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Sex

Balm in Gilead

“Is there no balm in Gilead? Is there no physician there?” (Jeremiah 8:22).

Balm in Gilead

I.

Ah! my wound lies deep: none know it
Save my early friends, and One–
One to whom I dare to show it,
Bending low before his throne.

Long I sought the crowded city,
With its many hearts–in vain.
These could smile, and those could pity;
None could still my restless pain.

Lure me now the tangled wildwood,
Sunny glade, and sparkling rill;
All the happy haunts of childhood;
But my heart is aching still.

Can it be but dim tradition,
Drawn from Fable's mystic fount,
That a great and good Physician
Dwells in Gilead’s holy mount?

Is it truth, or legend only,
That a healing balm grows there,
Through its valleys, deep and lonely,
Breathing fragrance on the air ?

II.

Balm of Gilead! I have found thee;
Near thy soft green leaves I bow;
And the fragrant breezes round thee
Fall upon my spirit now.

Oh! Thou great and good Physician,
Wise and tender, kind and true,
Thine the sacred healing mission;
Take the heart Thou didst renew!

Yet it is not that my sorrow
Vanished from the soul away,
As the mist at dawning morrow
Melts into the glorious day.

Nay, the wound is there; I feel it;
Over it I still must sigh;
Kneeling oft, I still reveal it
To the one all-seeing Eye.

But a new and living fountain
Opened in my weary breast,
When on Gilead’s holy mountain
Late I sought and found my rest.

And I know–I know full surely.
God shall wipe all tears away,
When my feet shall tread securely
Yonder city’s golden way.

Anonymous

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary


Tags: Balm of Gilead, Poem,

The Hubble Space Telescope - 19 Years Later

Photo: NASA



Today, April 24, 2009, the Hubble Space Telescope celebrates its 19th birthday. During its time of the service on behalf of scientists, Hubble has taken some of the most amazing, detailed pictures of planets, stars, galaxies, and a host of other space objects.

Here are some trivia about the Hubble Space Telescope:

* In its 19 years of viewing the heavens, NASA's Hubble Space Telescope has made more than 880,000 observations and snapped over 570,000 images of 29,000 celestial objects.

* Hubble does not travel to stars, planets, and galaxies. It takes pictures of them as it whirls around Earth at 17,500 miles an hour.

* In its 19-year lifetime, the telescope has made more than 100,000 trips around our planet. With those trips, Hubble has racked up plenty of frequent-flier miles, about 2.8 billion, the planet Neptune's average distance from the Sun.

* The 19 years' worth of observations has produced nearly 39 terabytes of data, enough to fill almost two collections in the U.S. Library of Congress.

* Each month the orbiting observatory generates more than 80 gigabytes of data.

* The Hubble archive sends about 2 terabytes of data each month to astronomers throughout the world.

* Astronomers using Hubble data have published more than 7,500 scientific papers, making it one of the most productive scientific instruments ever built. In 2008 scientists published nearly 700 journal articles on Hubble telescope data.

In order to celebrate Hubble’s 19th birthday, NASA has released its list of the top 12 scientific discoveries by the Hubble Space Telescope. To read this amazing list and see all 12 of NASA’s picks for the Hubble’s top scientific discoveries, visit the official Hubble site.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary


Tags: Hubble Telescope, NASA

The Book of Deuteronomy

Several years ago I wrote a commentary on the book of Deuteronomy that was published in Spanish in the series Comentario Bíblico Mundo Hispano: Levítico, Números y Deuteronomio (El Paso, TX: Editorial Mundo Hispano, 1998). In the introduction of my commentary, I wrote of the importance of the book of Deuteronomy in the formulation of the religious ideas of Israel and in the formation of the Hebrew Bible.

A good commentary on the book of Deuteronomy is Richard D. Nelson’s, Deuteronomy, The Old Testament Library (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002). Nelson’s commentary on Deuteronomy was designed to replace the commentary written by Gerhard von Rad, a work that has become a classic in its field. Nelson has written an excellent commentary which is a worthy successor of the original in this series.

In his work, Nelson recognizes that the language found in the book of Deuteronomy is peculiar and distinctive. The language found in Deuteronomy is characterized by words and phrases that are unique to the book. According to Nelson, the purpose of this distinctive language is “to arouse emotion and stimulate memory” in order “to motivate acceptance and action” (p. 2).

According to Nelson, the composition of Deuteronomy is complex. The book is unified in its theology, but there is evidence of disunity and repeated redaction in its final composition. Nelson refers to scribal activities present in the final redaction of the book. The redactional activity seen in the book was part of an attempt to integrate and organize the material into a coherent whole.

Nelson believes that the Ten Commandments and the covenant making at Sinai and in Moab were not originally part of the book. According to him, these texts were added to the core of the original text of Deuteronomy with the intent to connect the message of Deuteronomy to the life of the community in order to motivate the people’s obedience to the new laws.

One peculiar issue in Deuteronomy is the shift between the second person singular and the second person plural in Moses’ speeches to the community. Nelson believes that this shift reflects addresses to different audiences: when the second person singular is used, Moses is addressing the entire community. When the address shifts to the plural the focus is on individuals who are members of the community; they are addressed in order to emphasize personal responsibility.

Nelson says that a seventh century date for Deuteronomy is supported by two crucial facts: first, the book is based on the ideas and language found in Assyrian Vassal Treaties of Esarhaddon. Second, Deuteronomy is firmly associated with the book that encouraged the reforms of Josiah. In addition, the similarities between the language and message of Deuteronomy with the preaching of Hosea reflect the influx of refugees who came into Judah after the destruction of the northern kingdom.

The book of Deuteronomy was developed as a set of reforming laws, written at a time of religious, political, and social crisis in the life of the nation. The laws present in the book of Deuteronomy are in part a seventh century revision of many laws found in the Covenant Code (Exodus 20:22-23:33). This revision reflects many of the issues that the book seeks to address: the problem of centralization of worship, the issue of syncretism in the religious life of Judah, the changes in the economic and political conditions of Judean society, and the rise of humanitarian concerns that are reflected in laws dealing with the status of women and the oppression of the poor, widows, orphans, and the resident alien.

The laws of Deuteronomy are introduced as revelation of God’s will; they were given by God to the new generation of Israelites on the eve of their entrance into the land of promise. These laws are presented in the form of a farewell address by Moses to the gathered community in the land of Moab. Thus, the character of the book is homiletical and didactic.

According to Nelson, Deuteronomy was a “constitutional proposal,” a program designed to reform the social, religious, political, and economic life of Judah at a time when the nation was facing a struggle for survival. Israel was facing a religious and political crisis that could mean the life or death of the nation. Thus, the purpose of Deuteronomy was “to unify the nation, remove foreign ideologies, and reform religion” (p. 99).

Deuteronomy has many theological themes. One theme that runs throughout the book is the formation of a distinctive community living under obedience to Yahweh, the God of Israel. According to Nelson, many of the laws and demands in the book are “utopian,” that is, many of these laws in Deuteronomy were unenforceable because they ignored the economic realities of Judean society and the realities of power politics and class struggles. Rather, the laws of Deuteronomy were an appeal to the heart, requiring obedience to Yahweh’s law because of Yahweh’s gracious deeds on behalf of the nation.

A second theme is that of centralization of worship. This issue developed because Yahweh chose a single place of worship for the people in order to protect the nation’s relationship with Yahweh and its national unity. Deuteronomy stresses the election of an undeserving Israel. According to Nelson, “election means that Israel is a people defined by love and obedience” (p. 102). For this reason, Deuteronomy requires that anything that would compromise Yahweh’s position as the sole God of Israel should be eliminated.

A third emphasis of Deuteronomy is the humanitarian concerns of the book. The book of Deuteronomy promotes the view that every Israelite of means was responsible to help fellow Israelites in need. The laws of Deuteronomy deal with the plight of slaves, debtors, wage earners, widows, orphans, and resident aliens. In addition, many laws were revised and new ones enacted in order to improve the role of women in Israelite society. The aim of Deuteronomy was to present “a law for life in the land given by Yahweh” in order to “create the fair and just society” described in the book.

Nelson’s commentary is a book that should be added to the library of every serious student of Deuteronomy. Scholars, pastors, and students will find much in this commentary that will enhance their understanding of the message of this important biblical book.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Deuteronomy, Richard Nelson

Beer, Egyptian Style

The ancient Egyptians loved their beer. Here is one recipe for making beer, Egyptian style:

Boil barley and emmer wheat in a pot of water until it's cooked and water is absorbed. Add cold water to make a brew. Fill the pot just before the rim.

Heat the mixture, adding more water and cooked malt. Add natural wild yeast and uncooked malt to the cooked malt. Health food stores have different types of natural yeast.

After adding the second batch of malt, cover, and allow the mixture to ferment. Without adding any flavoring, the beer should be fruity and sweet and taste like raspberries.

If you want to read more about Egyptian beer, how the Egyptians prepared their beer, and the many ingredients that went into the preparation of Egyptian beer, read Anne Hart’s interesting article on Egyptian beer.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary


Tags: Anne Hart, Archaeology, Beer, Egyptian Beer,

Four New Egyptian Temples

Photo: Pharaoh Ramses II and Geb, god of earth.

Photo Credit: Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities and AP.



The Associated Press is reporting that four Egyptian temples were discovered on an old military road in the Sinai. The four temples were discovered in the ruins of a 3,000-year-old remains of an ancient fortified city located on the military road known as “Way of Horus.”

According to the report published by the Associated Press,

“Archaeologist Mohammed Abdel-Maqsoud, chief of the excavation team, said the large brick temple could potentially rewrite the historical and military significance of the Sinai for the ancient Egyptians.”

“The temple contains four hallways, three stone purification bowls and colorful inscriptions commemorating Ramses I and II. The grandeur and sheer size of the temple could have been used to impress armies and visiting foreign delegations as they arrived in Egypt.”

According to Abdel-Maqsoud,

“the fortified city corresponded to the inscriptions of the Way of Horus found on the walls of the Karnak Temple in Luxor which illustrated the features of 11 military fortresses that protected Egypt’s eastern borders. Only five of them have been discovered to date.”

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary


Tags: Archaeology, Egypt, Ramses II, Way of Horus,

A New Name for a New Denomination

Ethics Daily is reporting that the group that broke away from the teachings of Herbert W. Armstrong and his Radio Church of God has changed its name to reflect the group’s commitment to evangelical Christianity.

The following is an excerpt from the article published by Ethics Daily:

The Worldwide Church of God, which re-examined and later rebuked the teachings of founder Herbert W. Armstrong after his death in 1986, has changed its name to Grace Communion International.

It's the second name change for the denomination that Armstrong founded as the Radio Church of God in 1934, and church leaders say it's a better reflection of its mainstream evangelical theology.

"We are a church that God radically transformed," said church president Joseph W. Tkach, who is a board member of the National Association of Evangelicals. "Our new name is consistent with the transformation and aptly describes what God has made of our fellowship."

Armstrong denied the Christian belief in the Trinity and took Old Testament law to heart. He urged followers to abide by ancient dietary restrictions, to observe traditional Hebrew festivals, to mark the Sabbath on Saturday and to reject Christmas, Easter and birthdays as pagan holidays.

The transformation that God has worked in the lives of those who are part of the Grace Communion International is good news to all of us because it tells of the power of the Holy Spirit to teach truth to those who are seeking the truth.

“You will know the truth, and the truth will set you free” (John 8:32).

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary


Tags: Grace Communion International, Herbert Armstrong,

A Charge to the President

On Friday, April 17, 2009, Dr. Alistair Brown was inaugurated as the tenth President of Northern Baptist Seminary. President Brown came to Northern on September 15, 2008. Before becoming president of Northern Seminary, Dr. Brown was the General Director of the Baptist Missionary Society with headquarters in Didcot, Oxfordshire, UK. Alistair Brown was born near Edinburgh. He is a New Testament scholar. His Ph.D. thesis examined the metaphors of baptism in the Pauline literature.

During the Ceremony of Inauguration, Dr. Ian Chapman, a retired past president of Northern Baptist Seminary gave the charge to the new president. The address below is Chapman’s charge to President Alistair Brown.

NORTHERN BAPTIST THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
INAUGURATION OF DR. ALISTAIR BROWN
CHARGE TO THE CANDIDATE

By

Dr. Ian M. Chapman

In one of her poems, Edna St. Vincent Millay wrote:

Upon this gilded age, in its dark hour,
Falls from the sky a meteoric shower
Of facts…they lie unquestioned, uncombined.
Wisdom enough to leech us of our ill
Is easily spun; but there exists no loom
To weave it into fabric.

These words were penned in 1939 in a “dark hour” when the menacing clouds of war were “falling from the sky.” In that year Nazi Germany invaded Poland. Great Britain and other countries declared war on Germany. The Manhattan Project began work on the atomic bomb. With these events the world was plunged into a monstrous conflict that was to destroy the lives of millions. To make matters worse, there existed no loom to make any sense of this tragic fabric.
Today some might say we live in a “dark hour”. A world-wide economic disaster is destroying the lives of millions. The specter of terrorism and piracy looms over the free world. Even the Christian faith has fallen upon hard times. A recent edition of USA Today reported that in America “faith is shifting, drifting or vanishing outright.” Newsweek’s Easter edition carried the article, “The Rise and Fall of Christian America.” “This is not to say that the Christian God is dead, but that he is less of a force in American politics and culture than in any other time in recent history.”

If we wish to be pessimistic we might conclude that in this present time there “exists no loom to make any sense of this fabric.” But that would not be true. A theological seminary is God’s loom. It is the seminary’s mission to make sense out of the madness of the world; to bring meaning and purpose to the emptiness that often daunts life; and to give perspective to those who have given up or simply lost their way. In short, the seminary, that is, the president, Board, faculty, staff, and students are called to weave the fabric of biblical faith in order to transform the church and the world.

It is my deep conviction that if a seminary did not exist, it would be necessary to invent one. A seminary is that vital to the church; it is that crucial for the nurture of every believer. It is that essential for the sake of the world. Our dear friend Brimson Grow [Northern Seminary’s former trustee] who served Northern faithfully for so many years often said, “Theological education is the greatest investment we can make for the cause of Christ.” I believe that to be true.

Alistair, God has gifted you and called you to weave the fabric of biblical faith on Northern’s loom. This is a high and holy privilege and a daunting responsibility. As you are installed this day as Northern’s Tenth President, I offer you these challenges from the early church.

1. The early church paid attention to the biblical text. You see this in the church’s deep commitment to preaching and teaching. Peter’s sermon to the Passover crowd in Jerusalem in the second chapter of the book of Acts was based on two portions of the Old Testament. In Acts 2:42, we learn that the believers “devoted themselves to the Apostles teaching….”

In 2 Peter 1:16 the author writes, “We did not follow cleverly invented stories when we told you about the coming and power of our Lord, Jesus Christ.” But sadly in today’s evangelical church Scripture is rarely read and preachers rarely exegete the biblical text. They preach sermons to amuse and entertain or offer therapeutic pabulum to satisfy the congregation’s self-centered needs.

Mr. President, I challenge you to infuse in this community a love and commitment for the biblical text. The church needs more, much more than “cleverly invented stories.”

2. The early church had a story to tell. In a recent meeting the guest speaker said of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, “This is really important stuff. It’s worth our lives.” What struck me was his voice. It throbbed with passion. It was obvious that the Gospel meant everything to him. When you study the biblical record you quickly discover that the early church throbbed with a similar passion.

The passage I referred to earlier in 2 Peter continues with these words: ‘but we were eyewitnesses to his majesty.” Jesus. He was the priority of the early church and they told his story over and over again. None of us here were eyewitnesses to the “majesty of Jesus Christ.” but we can tell His story and tell it with passion and conviction.

Mr. President I challenge you to infuse in this community the passion to tell the story of the life, death, resurrection, ascension and coming again of our Lord Jesus Christ. This is really important stuff. It’s worth our lives.

3. The early church persevered. When you read the events of the early church you cannot help but be moved by the courage of these believers. When ordered by the religious authorities not to speak further of Jesus the disciples replied, “We cannot help speaking about what we have seen and heard.” Where did these believers find such courage? What was the secret of their confidence? They were, as scripture says, “ordinary, uneducated people.” Surely they were not the kind of people we would choose as the founding leaders of His church. The secret of their confidence was their intimate relationship with Jesus. As we read in the book of Hebrews (12:3) they followed Jesus who “endured the cross, scorned its shame, and sat down at the right hand of the throne of God.”

Mr. President, you have already been confronted by many challenges since you came to Northern. And no doubt there are more to come. During WW 2 Winston Churchill singlehandedly became the loom that weaved the fabric of hope for the British people. He encouraged, he persevered, he sacrificed, and he risked his life. In a dramatic radio address he uttered these memorable words: “Never, never, never give up” and the British people stiffened their upper lips and marched to victory.

Mr. President, I challenge you to infuse in this community the courage to endure for the sake of Christ. I believe the fabric of text, story and perseverance in Northern’s loom will design a new future for the seminary church and the world.

May God bless you.

****

I want to thank Dr. Ian Chapman for the permission to publish his Challenge to the President. His address describes well the theological task of a seminary.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Alistair Brown, Ian Chapman, Northern Seminary

An Impressive Model of the Temple

Alec Garrard has worked for more than 30 years to recreate Herod's Temple.

His version of the Temple is so impressive that some of the world’s top archaeologists and experts from the British Museum have come to view it.

According to a news report, Alec Garrard’s model is now recognized as the most authentic version of the Temple in the world.

To see three beautiful pictures of the recreated Temple, click here.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Alec Garrard, Herod’s Temple, Temple Model

Financial Problems at Hebrew Union College

The following report was published by the Daily News Wire Services

The Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, a seminary and graduate school for Judaism's Reform movement, is facing such financial woes that it is considering closing two of its three U.S. campuses, including one near downtown Los Angeles.

In a letter sent this week to members of the college community, its president, Rabbi David Ellenson, said pension funding problems, flat donations and declines in its endowment had placed the institution "in the most challenging financial position it has faced in its history -- even more so than during the Depression."

As a result, Ellenson wrote, Hebrew Union's board of governors will meet next month to discuss such scenarios as whether to keep just one of its three U.S. campuses in Los Angeles, New York and Cincinnati, where the college was founded.

Alternatives include merging some academic programs but keeping more than one of its U.S. campuses open, he wrote in the letter released by his office. A decision is expected in June.

The college also has a campus in Jerusalem, which faces budget reductions but does not appear to be in danger of closing.

Hebrew Union College was founded in 1875 and later merged with the New York-based Jewish Institute of Religion. A major force in liberal American Judaism, it trains Reform rabbis, cantors and lay leaders and offers courses to students of all religions in such subjects as biblical archaeology and sacred music.

The news of a possible decision by the Hebrew Union College’s board of governors to close two of its three campuses is sad. Hebrew Union College graduates have made great contributions to Judaism and to the study of the Hebrew Bible.

Let us hope that a few donors can come to the rescue of the institution so that the closing will become unnecessary.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Hebrew Union College

The Child Samuel

Hushed was the evening hymn,
The temple courts were dark;
The lamp was burning dim
Before the sacred ark;
When suddenly a voice divine
Rang through the silence of the shrine.

The old man, meek and mild,
The priest of Israel, slept;
His watch the temple-child,
The little Levite, kept;
And what from Eli’s sense was sealed,
The Lord to Hannah’s son revealed.

Oh! give me Samuel’s ear!
The open ear, O Lord;
Alive and quick to hear
Each whisper of thy word:
Like him, to answer at thy call,
And to obey Thee first of all.

Oh! give me Samuel’s heart!
A lowly heart, that waits
Where in thy house Thou art,
Or watches at thy gates:
By day and by night, a heart that still
Moves at the breathing of thy will.

Oh! give me Samuel’s mind!
A. sweet, unmurmuring faith,
Obedient and resigned
To Thee in life and death;
That I may read, with childlike eyes,
Truths that are hidden from the wise.
(Anonymous)

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary


Tags: Samuel, Poetry

Deborah the Prophetess

The book of judges calls Deborah a prophetess: “Now Deborah, a prophetess, the wife of Lappidoth, was judging Israel at that time” (Judges 4:4). Deborah’s name (דְבוֹרָה֙) is generally translated as “bee.” However, it is rare for Israelites to be named after animals. For this reason, Johannes Cornelis de Moor, in his book The Elusive Prophet: The Prophet as a Historical Person, Literary Character and Anonymous Artist (Leiden: Brill, 2001), p. 240, proposed another possible translation of Deborah’s name. De Moor associates the name Deborah with the Hebrew word dabar (דבר) and translates her name as “the woman of the word.”

Although most of the prophets in the Old Testament were men, several women were also called prophets (the Hebrew word nebia, translated “prophetess” in English, is the feminine of the Hebrew word for prophet nabi).

In addition to Deborah, the following women were called prophetesses in the Old Testament: Miriam (Exodus 15:20), Huldah (2 Kings 22:14; 2 Chronicles 34:22), Noadia (Nehemiah 6:14) and Isaiah’s wife (Isaiah 8:3). These women prophets are present in all major historical periods in the history of Israel. Miriam and Deborah come from the pre-monarchic period, Isaiah’s wife and Huldah from the monarchic period, and Noadia from the post-exilic period.

The word prophet comes from the Greek word prophetes, a word which means “one who speaks on behalf of.” A prophet proclaims the words of God to men and women in order to communicate the divine will to them.

A prophet was a person who spoke on behalf of God and revealed God’s words and demands to the people. Deborah is called a nebia, a word which is the feminine equivalent of a nabi. Most scholars believe that the word nabi comes from an Akkadian root which means “to call.” Thus, a prophet is a person who has been called by God to proclaim his word. A prophet is the person who has been divinely inspired and who has received a special revelation from God which she then is compelled to proclaim.

With the exception of Isaiah’s wife and Noadia, there is some kind of musical connection with the women identified as prophets in the Old Testament. For instance, Miriam is associated with the “Song of Miriam” in Exodus 15:20-21:

Then Miriam the prophetess, the sister of Aaron, took a tambourine in her hand, and all the women went out after her with tambourines and dancing. And Miriam sang to them: ‘Sing to the LORD, for he has triumphed gloriously; the horse and his rider he has thrown into the sea.’

Deborah the prophetess is associated with the “Song of Deborah” in Judges 5:1. Although Huldah is not directly associated with music, she was the wife of Shallum, the son of Tikvah, who was the keeper of the wardrobe. The office of “the keeper of the wardrobe” is only mentioned in 2 Kings 22:14 and 2 Chronicles 34:22. This occupation may indicate that Shallum was in charge of maintaining the Levitical garments of the singers in the temple, who also were called prophets (1 Chronicles 25:1-7). This probably makes Huldah a person associated with music in the temple.

Since most of the prophets of the Old Testament were men, God’s call of a selected group of women to the prophetic ministry makes them special among the prophets of Israel. The biblical text does not reveal how Deborah received her call to the prophetic ministry. In the Old Testament the prophetic word generally came through dreams, visions, prophetic symbolisms, ecstasy, and in a few cases, through direct communication.

With Deborah, God’s call comes in the midst of patriarchal structures. However, the existence of female prophets in other Near Eastern cultures, such as Mari, indicates that the presence of a prophetess in Israelite society would be in harmony with the religious culture present in the ancient Near East in the second millennium B.C.

As a woman called by God to the prophetic ministry, Deborah played an important role in delivering Israel from the oppression of the Canaanites. The self-awareness of being called to the prophetic ministry and the self-assurance she demonstrated in summoning Barak to fight against the Canaanites is evidence that the divine call gave her the confidence she needed to take upon herself the role God called her to fulfill.

Her prophetic mission was to bring God’s message to Barak and to Israel. Barak had no problem in acknowledging Deborah as a woman with a mission and message from God since he recognized that Deborah’s message was from Yahweh. Barak was so convinced that Deborah was sent by God that he refused to go into battle without her presence, since her presence with the army would insure the presence of God with Israel and victory against the enemies. Barak’s request is comparable to the Israelites’ decision to take the ark, a sign of God’s presence and favor, with them into battle against the Philistines in 1 Samuel 4:1-3.

Deborah’s prophetic words came in the form of a divine oracle summoning Barak to gather the people of Israel to fight against Sisera, the commander of the Canaanite army. The text does not reveal how Deborah received the oracle from Yahweh, but her oracle reveals a strategy for Barak to fight against the Canaanite encroachment.

Deborah’s oracle to Barak is found in Judges 4:6-7:

Deborah sent and summoned Barak the son of Abinoam from Kedesh-naphtali and said to him, “Has not the LORD, the God of Israel, commanded you, ‘Go, gather your men at Mount Tabor, taking 10,000 from the people of Naphtali and the people of Zebulun. And I will draw out Sisera, the general of Jabin’s army, to meet you by the river Kishon with his chariots and his troops, and I will give him into your hand.’”

The form of Deborah’s oracle reflects a clear awareness of her prophetic status. What Deborah proclaimed to Barak as a person authorized to speak on behalf of Yahweh was by definition what Yahweh had spoken. Deborah even proclaimed Yahweh’s message in the first person.

In view of Barak’s reluctance to go to battle unless she accompanied him, Deborah gave Barak a sign that would authenticate God’s presence in the field of battle. Deborah predicted that Yahweh would deliver Sisera into the hands of a woman. Deborah said to Barak: “I will surely go with you. Nevertheless, the road on which you are going will not lead to your glory, for the LORD will sell Sisera into the hand of a woman” (Judges 4:9). This sign, although unflattering to Barak, would be the evidence of Yahweh’s involvement in Israel’s victory.

As the time for the battle approached, Deborah told Barak: “‘Go! This is the day the LORD has given Sisera into your hands. Has not the LORD gone ahead of you?’ So Barak went down Mount Tabor, followed by ten thousand men” (Judges 4:14 NIV). Deborah was not helping Barak; Deborah was commanding him to go into action. And her words to Barak were not spoken in private but were spoken in front of the army to encourage Barak and the fighting men of Israel. Deborah’s prophetic words were fulfilled and Sisera was defeated and killed by a woman, just as Deborah had predicted.

Deborah was one of the great women that appear in the pages of the Old Testament. Her greatness came from her accomplishments and character. Although Deborah was aware of the limitations imposed on her by the social and cultural constraints of her days, she was able to accomplish the mission entrusted to her because she was obedient to God.

Other studies on Deborah:

Deborah: Prophetess and Judge

Deborah: A Judge in Israel


Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Barak, Debora, Prophet, Prophetess

Tayinat: The Capital of the “Land of Palastin”

TAP excavations on the Tayinat Citadel.
(Photograph by Tim Harrison)


Science Daily is reporting that an archaeological team from the University of Toronto has discovered a temple in Turkey that sheds light on the transition between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age. According to the report, the temple was built in the 10th/9th-centuries B.C., the same time Solomon was ruling in Jerusalem.

According to the report, the discovery by the Tayinat Archaeological Project (TAP) “casts doubt upon the traditional view that the transition from the Late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age was violent, sudden and culturally disruptive.” The following is an excerpt from the article published by Science Daily:

Ancient sources — such as the Homeric epics and the Hebrew Bible — depict an era of widespread famine, ethnic conflict and population movement, most famously including the migrations of the Sea Peoples (or biblical Philistines) and the Israelites. This is thought to have precipitated a prolonged Dark Age marked by cultural decline and ethnic strife during the early centuries of the Iron Age. But recent discoveries — including the Tayinat excavations — have revealed that some ruling dynasties survived the collapse of the great Bronze Age powers.

"Our ongoing excavations have not only begun to uncover extensive remains from this Dark Age, but the emerging archaeological picture suggests that during this period Tayinat was the capital of a powerful kingdom, the ‘Land of Palastin’," says Timothy Harrison, professor of Near Eastern Archaeology at the University of Toronto and the director of the project. "Intriguingly, the early Iron Age settlement at Tayinat shows evidence of strong cultural connections, if not the direct presence of foreign settlers, from the Aegean world, the traditional homeland of the Sea Peoples."

The statement, “that during this period Tayinat was the capital of a powerful kingdom, the ‘Land of Palastin,’” is very intriguing because it confirms the presence of the Sea Peoples, especially the Philistines, in Asia Minor a few centuries after they entered the land of Canaan.

The report also says that the archaeological team from the University of Toronto will focus their excavation in 2009 (which begins on July 1) on the temple’s inner sanctuary, “the 'holy of holies.”

It is hoped that this year’s excavation will shed light on Tayinat and the presence of the “Palastin” in that region.

Note: for additional pictures of the site, visit the TAP webpage.

HT: Jim West and Duane Smith

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Philistines, Tayinat

The Seventh Step

Order The Seventh Step from Amazon.com




Several weeks ago, Sandra Foster sent me a copy of her book, The Seventh Step: Building Blocks for Spiritual and Earthly Success. Foster’s book is a story of her pilgrimage, a story that serves as an inspiration and a motivation to readers to learn how to walk with God.

The blurb of her book explains to aim of The Seventh Step:

The Seventh Step encourages Christians to take the first step in leading a more spiritual life. Based on personal experience and over a decade of teaching bible studies, Sandra Foster explores a new perspective of Old Testament text. Presented in seven easy to read chapters, the author describes what is necessary in order to be successful in this life and the next and tells us how we can overcome obstacles in our personal and financial lives by adhering to a routine prescription of offering sacrifices of praise to God as David did so long ago when he took the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem.

The Seventh Step is the story of a woman of faith who learned how to believe in God through the many trials of her life. Foster acknowledges that she grew up with a father who never found his path in life and who also “engrained in his children the disposition for never finding theirs.” So, in her book, Foster relates how she discovered the building blocks that lead to spiritual and earthly success.

It was after Foster left her father's house that she discovered herself. In order to overcome what she calls “toxic parenting,” and out of love for her daughter, Foster recognized that her life needed a radical change.

That radical change came when she read Scott Peck’s book, The Road Less Traveled. It was after reading that book that she discovered that the road less traveled leads to God. It was after she began to walk with God, when she put her trust in him that she discovered how to find spiritual peace. Foster said: “If you but seek Him, He will heal your life, plug the holes in your heart and make you whole.”

Wholeness is what God offers. God has provided everything we need to overcome our problems (p. 42), but victory comes only when we learn how to walk with God daily. To Foster, walking with God is the key that guarantees spiritual victory. She wrote:

But the great thing about walking with God is that when we become discouraged, we need only to look back and see where God has brought us from and use that encouragement to fuel us toward to even greater heights (p. 106).

Foster’s book expresses a genuine love for the people of the Old Testament, especially Abraham, Moses, and David. She applies Old Testament stories to everyday life in such a way that those stories begin to make sense to people who are going through difficult times.

The Seventh Step was written by a woman who has learned how to trust in God in the most difficult times of her life. For this reason, people of faith who are facing trials and tribulations may find in the life of this pilgrim a companion whose words can inspire and comfort for the duration of the journey.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Christian Life

In Search of Cleopatra’s Tomb

According to a news report, Egyptian archaeologists will begin excavating a site that may the place where Cleopatra and Mark Antony were buried.

The report also says that a radar survey of the temple of Taposiris Magna near the Mediterranean Sea found a tomb of the famous Egyptian queen. Archaeologists also found a bust of Cleopatra made of alabaster, 22 coins bearing her image, as well as a mask believed to belong to Mark Antony.

Cleopatra was queen of Egypt between 51 B.C. until her suicide in 30 B.C. Cleopatra and Mark Anthony committed suicide after being defeated in the Battle of Actium.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Cleopatra, Egypt

The Use of Medicine in Antiquity

Researchers have discovered that the ancient Egyptians added herbs to their wine in order to produce medicines that could cure a host of diseases.

According to a study of more than 700 jars found at Abydos in Egypt and dated to 3100 B.C., some of these jars contained wine mixed with tree resin, which was used as a preservative and for medical purposes, and other chemicals extracted from various herbs.

Egyptian pharmacological texts reveal that many herbs were added to wine for medicinal purposes. According to these medical papyri, resins and different types of herbs were added to wine, beer, and water for use as pain relievers, laxatives, diuretics, or aphrodisiacs.

Some of the ingredients added to wine and other beverages are still part of the herbal medical tradition of many countries. Among the herbs that were added to the wine are coriander, balm, mint, sage, senna, germander, savory, and thyme.

Maybe now we can understand Paul’s advice to Timothy:

“Do not take only water as your drink, but take a little wine for the good of your stomach, and because of your frequent illnesses” (1 Timothy 5:23).

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Egypt, Herbs, Medicine, Wine

Bowing Seven Times

During the meeting of the G-20 leaders in London, President Barack Obama bowed before King Abdullah, King of Saudi Arabia. In response to Obama’s gesture, King Abdullah did not bow back.

Obama’s act of prostration before the king of Saudi Arabia has caused moral outrage throughout the United Sates because Obama has broken a long-standing protocol that American presidents do not bow down to kings and queens.

In response to the furor raised by Obama’s bowing down before King Abdullah, the White House has released a statement declaring that President Obama did not bow down but was stooping down to shake both of the Saudi King’s hands.

The video below clearly shows Obama bowing before the king of Saudi Arabia.





After Jacob returned from serving Laban, he prepared to meet his brother Esau. When Jacob saw Esau coming to meet him and accompanied by 400 men, Jacob was afraid. So he divided his children according to their mothers. He put the servant wives and their children in front, then Leah and her children, and then Rachel and Joseph last. Jacob then went in front of his family to meet his brother. As Jacob came near Esau, Jacob bowed down to the ground seven times before his brother (Genesis 33:3).

Jacob’s act of submission to his brother is followed by his wives and children. Like Jacob, each wife and their children bowed down before Esau.

The servant wives and their children came to Esau and bowed down before him (Genesis 33:6). Then Leah and her children approached Esau and they also bowed down before him (v. 7a). Lastly, Rachel and her son Joseph came forward and they also bowed down before Esau (v. 7b).

Jacob’s decision to bow down to Esau reflects an ironic reversal of the blessing he received from his father: “Let peoples serve you, and nations bow down to you. Be lord over your brothers, and may your mother’s sons bow down to you” (Genesis 27:29).

In the Old Testament, the act of bowing was the customary act of self-abasement performed by an individual before a person in a superior position. The Hebrew verb translated “bow down” can be translated “to prostrate oneself”; “to worship.” Bowing down was a gesture of respect before and act of submission to superiors, persons in authority, government officials, and God.

After Joseph became the governor over the land of Egypt, his brothers came before him and bowed themselves with their faces to the ground (Genesis 42:6).

When Abraham needed to buy a portion of the land in Canaan to bury his wife Sarah, Abraham bowed to the Hittites, the people of the land who lived in Hebron, as a sign of submission (Genesis 23:7).

Abraham also bowed before the Lord and his companions who visited him at Mamre (Genesis 18:2). Lot bowed down before two angelic visitors who came to him while he was living in Sodom (Genesis 19:1).

The act of bowing down or prostration in antiquity was a common act of submission of an inferior before a superior. One classical example was the image of Jehu bowing down in an act of submission to Shalmaneser III on the Black Obelisk.

Bowing seven times was a demonstration of reverence that was the customary act of homage a vassal offered to his overlord. According to Claus Westermann (Genesis 12-36 [Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1995]), Jacob greeted his brother as a vassal greeted his overlord with an act of reverence that had its origin in the royal court.

“The text describes an attestation of submission. The whole procedure with all its details is such as could take place between an overlord and his rebellious or otherwise culpable vassal. The narrator has in view some such court ritual as, for example, the Amarna letters show, with the oft-occuring formula, ‘I fall prostrate at the feet of my lord, seven and seven times’” (pp. 524-25).

I have selected three examples from the Amarna letters to show a vassal’s attitude of self-abasement before the king of Egypt. In these examples, the vassals show their submission to Pharaoh by bowing seven and seven times at the feet of the king.

Amarna Letter No. 244:

“To the king, my lord, and my Sun-god say: Thus Biridiya, the faithful servant of the king. At the two feet of the king, my lord, and my Sun-god, seven and seven times I fall.”

Amarna Letter No. 137:

“Rib-Addi spoke to the king, his lord, the Sun-god of the lands. Beneath the feet of the king, my lord, seven times, and seven times I fall.”

Amarna Letter No. 147:

“To the king, my lord, my pantheon, my Sun-god say: Thus Abimilki, thy servant. Seven and seven times I fall at the feet of the king, my lord.”

The expression “seven and seven times I fall at the feet of the king, my lord” is found more than fifty times in the Amarna letters.

Generally a single bow was sufficient to express great reverence. So, why did Jacob and the vassals of Pharaoh bow seven times?

It is possible to interpret the act of bowing seven times as a demonstration of complete submission to the overlord. However, I would like to suggest another possible reason why Pharaoh’s vassals bowed seven times before his feet.

In the three examples listed above, the vassals of Pharaoh call him “my Sun-god” or “the Sun-god of the lands.” Thus, bowing seven times before Pharaoh was an act that acknowledged him to be not only lord and king, but also a god.

It would be interesting to find out whether in other literature of the Ancient Near East the vassals bowed seven times before their overlords and called them gods. When Jacob bowed before Esau, Jacob indirectly recognized him as a god. Jacob said: “To see your face is like seeing the face of God” (Genesis 33:10).

Thus, it is possible that the act of bowing seven times before a person in a superior position was to acknowledge that person as having the characteristics or the attributes of a god.

It is clear that Obama bowed before the king of Saudi Arabia, and without intending to send a message to the world, his action implied that the inferior was bowing before the superior. I am just glad that Obama did not bow seven times.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Barack Obama, Bow Down, Esau, Jacob, King Abdulla, Saudi Arabia

Petra and the Nabateans

Photo: The City of Petra


The Wall Street Journal online has an interesting article on Petra, the ancient capital of the Nabateans, a people who lived in what is present-day Jordan.

The article, The Power of Petra, describes the majesty of the city and provides some details on Nabatean history. The following is an excerpt from the article:

The Nabateans really are a lost civilization, a blind alley of history. Their religion, devoted to native gods with such names as Dushara, Uzza and Kutba, seemed alien even to the Nabateans' contemporaries. Little remains of these gods except their names and controversies about their powers and personae. The amphitheater in Petra seated thousands, but no one knows what dramas were enacted there. The Nabateans left behind stately inscriptions but no literature; if history is written by the victors, those who write no history dwell in a perpetual penumbra of mystery.

Those who are interested on the history of Petra and the archaeological work conducted at the site will enjoy reading this article.

The article also offers a slide show with magnificent pictures of Petra. You will enjoy the magnificent pictures of Petra.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Nabateans, Petra

Another Dead Sea Scrolls Controversy

Photo: A Non-Biblical Text from Qumran

Photo Credit: Israel Antiquities Authority



The Dead Sea Scrolls have been the subject of many books, articles, documentaries, and controversies. The latest controversy about the Dead Sea Scrolls is brewing in Canada.

The Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto is planning a six-month exhibit of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The exhibit is being cosponsored by the Israel Antiquities Authority. The exhibit will run from June 27, 2009 to January 3, 2010.

However, top Palestinian officials have declared that the exhibit violates international law and have demanded that the Canadian government and the museum cancel the presentation.

Palestinian officials have sent letters to Prime Minister Stephen Harper and to executives of the Royal Ontario Museum arguing that the scrolls were illegally acquired by Israel after Israel annexed the West Bank in 1967.

Hamdan Taha, the Director of the archaeological department in the Palestinian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities said: “The exhibition would entail exhibiting or displaying artifacts removed from the Palestinian territories.”

Palestinian officials believe that the exhibition violates international laws on the treatment of archaeological artifacts that were illegally obtained.

The state of Israel believes they are the legitimate custodians of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Israel also believes the scrolls preserve valuable historical evidence of their past and confirm “an ancient Jewish bond with the Holy Land, reaching back to the destruction of the second Jewish temple in 70 AD – and beyond.”

This effort by the Palestinian Authority may be an attempt by the Palestinians to claim authority over what they call “the occupied territory” since they claim that the scrolls are a few of the many artifacts Israel has removed illegally from Palestinian territory since 1967.

Read a news report on the controversy by clicking here.

Who is right in this controversy? Since there are international laws to regulate the treatment of archaeological artifacts, it may take an international court to settle this dispute. However, the way world opinion seems to be stacked against Israel, if the case were to be adjudicated by an international court today, Israel would probably lose the case.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Dead Sea Scrolls

Nefertiti’s Wrinkles

Photo: Nefertiti

This is the famous photo of Nefertiti, queen of Egypt. Her beauty is captivating. Nefertiti's bust is a good representation of the glory of ancient Egypt.

According to National Geographical News, researchers have used CT scanning technology to study Nefertiti’s face behind the famous bust of the Egyptian queen.

The new image of Nefertiti’s face revealed by the CT scan shows creases around the corners of her mouth and cheeks, less prominent cheekbones, and a bump on her nose.

Look at Nefertiti’s face behind the famous sculpture by clicking here.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Egypt, Nefertiti

The Female King of Canaan

Photo: The Mistress of the Lionesses

Photograph Courtesy: Dr. Zvi Lederman, Tel Beth-Shemesh Excavations





National Geographic News is reporting that archaeologist may have discovered the city where a female king known as the “Mistress of the Lionesses” lived. The following is an excerpt from the article:

Archaeologists digging in the ruins of the Canaanite city-state Beth-Shemesh last summer found a decorated plaque with what could be the first known depiction of a ruler known as the Mistress of the Lionesses.

The plaque—which is slightly smaller than a cigarette pack—shows a bare-chested figure wearing a kilt, with short-cropped hair and bent arms holding up two long-stemmed lotus flowers.

The figure is standing on a basket called a neb, which in ancient Egyptian iconography signifies a ruler or deity.

Although the tablet bears no writing, the figure's hairstyle and the fact that it is holding lotus flowers suggests it is a woman, said Tel Aviv University archaeologists Shlomo Bunimovitz and Zvi Lederman, who made the discovery.

Mistress in Distress

Before it became the Promised Land of the Hebrews, Canaan was a collection of city-states ruled by mostly male kings who paid tributes to their more powerful neighbors the Egyptians.

Around 1350 B.C., several Canaanite kings sent clay tablets to the Egyptian pharaoh requesting military help from nomadic marauders known as the Habiru.

Of the 382 tablets that have been found, two were signed with the feminine epithet "Mistress of the Lionesses."

"The Mistress complained to the Egyptian court that the Habiru were around and that her city was in danger," Lederman said.

Some archaeologists believe the Mistress was a female ruler of a Canaanite city, but which city has remained an open question.

The new plaque could link the Mistress to the city of Beth-Shemesh, Bunimovitz and Lederman suggest.

Read the news release in its entirety by visiting the web page of National Geographic News.

Although other archaeologists disagree with the assumption that the ruler depicted in the picture is the “Mistress of the Lionesses,” that is, that the picture depicts a woman, the article concludes that a woman could reign in Canaan as the king (or queen) of a city state.

UPDATE:

Two very important posts have been published that provide historical background to the “Mistress of the Lionesses” or the “The Lady of the Lionesses”:

Judith Weingarten at Zenobia: Empress of the East: “The Lady of the Lionesses and a Pharaonic Wimp.”

Duane Smith at Abnormal Interests: “What/Where Was Belit-nesheti's City?”

Both posts are very important because they provide more information on the historical background of this important woman’s struggle with the Hapiru and the king of Egypt’s reluctance to come to her help.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary


Tags: Archaeology, Beth-Shemesh, Habiru, Mistress of the Lionesses, Shlomo Bunimovitz,
Tell-Amarna, Zvi Lederman

Elusive Israel

Buy Elusive Israel at Amazon.com.




A few years ago, Charles Cosgrove, my colleague here at Northern Seminary, published a book that I believe still deserves to be read by a wider public today. His book, Elusive Israel: The Puzzle of Election in Romans, was published by Westminster John Knox in 1997. His book deals with the question of the election of Israel in the book of Romans.

At the time Elusive Israel was published, it received many positive reviews. For example, John Proctor from Westminster College at Cambridge said in the Expository Times that Cosgrove’s book gives “much food for thought about Paul, about Israel and the nations, and about our responsibilities to the Bible.”

Steven Bechtler from Philips University said that this book is “an ingenious and provocative interpretation [on the destiny of Israel and it is ] . . . highly recommended not only for scholars but for ministers.” Anthony J. Saldarini, from Boston College, writing in Bible Review said: “Cosgrove reads Paul carefully and faithfully” and “has responded to one of the traditional purposes of scripture, to discomfort the complacent and stimulate them to hear God's word anew.” Another reviewer said that Elusive Israel was “a remarkable book.”

Cosgrove’s book is a study of what he calls “the puzzle of election” in the book of Romans. The aim of his study is to deal with conflicting but reasonable interpretations of several key passages in the book of Romans dealing with the identity and destiny of Israel.

Cosgrove develops his argument within the four chapters of his book. In Chapter 1, Cosgrove explores the identity of Israel by constructing an imaginary dialogue among three Roman Christians who were very familiar with the content and details of the letter Paul had sent to the Roman Church.

The discussion among Chariton, a gentile Christian and Simeon and Reuben, two Jewish Christians focuses on the identity of Israel in Romans and the equally plausible but conflicting interpretations of the writings of Paul. The main issue is Paul’s affirmation of Israel’s election and his insistence on divine impartiality.

In Chapter 2, Cosgrove examines Paul’s use of co-deliberation to invite his audience, within the limits of plausible exegesis, to choose the true meaning of the text. As Cosgrove said: “Paul’s apparent intent is ambiguous enough in Romans to allow for more than one critically justifiable interpretation of what he says about the divine election of Israel . . . [Paul] places interpretive options before our will, and we choose” (p. 32). This is what Cosgrove calls “hermeneutical election.” According to Cosgrove, in Romans 11:11 ff., Paul encourages us to do just that: “to elect for or against the election or dis-election of carnal Israel” (p. 32).

Chapter 3 considers the result of the canonization of Romans: the transformation of the apocalyptic Paul into prophetic Paul. The result of this transformation is Paul’s declaration of the imminent salvation of “all Israel” and his teaching that the church exists already within the beginning of the end. The church also “stands within a larger canonical story that assumes the continuance of history beyond the age of the apostles and thus implies that the divine revelation to Paul is not to be fulfilled in the way he expected.”

In Chapter 4 Cosgrove exercises his hermeneutical election and comes to the conclusion that Paul affirms “that the Jewish people are the true and irrevocably elect Israel.” In order to come to this conclusion, Cosgrove is informed by moral judgment and his own ethical views, which in turn is informed by modern discussion on the destiny of Israel to justify this interpretation, which according to him, is most conducive to a humane use of Romans by the church in the late twentieth century.

To give two examples from the book, I take Romans 9:6: “For not all who are descended from Israel belong to Israel.” Cosgrove says that this is “the most enigmatic statement about Israel in Romans” (p. 65). Here in this verse there are two different uses of the name Israel in Romans, what Cosgrove calls Israel A and Israel B.

Then Paul says in Romans 11:13-14: “ Now I am speaking to you Gentiles. Inasmuch then as I am an apostle to the Gentiles, I magnify my ministry in order to make my fellow Jews jealous, and thus save some of them.” Here Paul speaks about saving some of them (some of his fellow Jews). In Romans 11:5 Paul speaks of a remnant: “So too at the present time there is a remnant, chosen by grace.”

But then, in Romans 11:25-26 Paul says: “Lest you be wise in your own conceits, I want you to understand this mystery, brethren: a hardening has come upon part of Israel, until the full number of the Gentiles come in, and so all Israel will be saved.” Since Paul says that “all Israel will be saved” then, how does the reader deal with Romans 9:22-26, a text that seems to teach that God has created some vessels destined for destruction. To this issue Cosgrove says: “I have opted to adjudicate the question of the identity of ‘all Israel’ in 11:26 in a way that requires the complementary exegetical decision that Romans 11 supplies a surprise sequel to Romans 9:22ff. The effect of this sequel is to overturn the impression that the majority of Israelites are . . . vessels of wrath” (p. 85).

Charles Cosgrove has written a challenging book. One does not have to agree with every conclusion of the book to know that Cosgrove has written a thought-provoking book. I am sure that this work will force every reader of the book to consider the implications of his study. Although Cosgrove’s book was written more than a decade ago, this book is still worth reading.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Charles Cosgrove, Election, Israel, Romans 11

A New Inscription Mentioning Nabonidus, King of Babylon

Image: Nabonidus praying to the sun, moon, and Venus





Alan Lenzi at Bible and Ancient Near East is reporting that archaeologists have found a new inscription mentioning the name of Nabonidus (Nabû-na’id), king of Babylon.

According to Alan’s blog, this cuneiform text was discovered in the oasis of Tayma (Saudi Arabia) near a building which has been tentatively identified as a temple.

Nabonidus (556-539 B.C.) was the last king of Babylon. Babylon fell to Cyrus, king of Persia in 539 B.C. In the last ten years of his reign, Nabonidus lived at Tayma from where he ruled Babylon.

Because Nabonidus favored the moon god Sin, the priests of Marduk, the main god of Babylon, revolted against Nabonidus. Nabonidus departed Babylon to Tayma and left his son Belshazzar to govern the city as a coregent. Belshazzar is mentioned in the 5th chapter of the book of Daniel

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Babylon, Belshazzar, Daniel, Nabonidus, Tayma

The Discovery of a “Gilgal”

Photo: A foot-shaped structure

Credit: Image courtesy of University of Haifa



The Bible says that after the people of Israel crossed the Jordan, they encamped at Gilgal:

“On the tenth day of the first month the people went up from the Jordan and camped at Gilgal on the eastern border of Jericho. And Joshua set up at Gilgal the twelve stones they had taken out of the Jordan” (Joshua 4:19-20).

ScienceDaily is reporting that a “Foot-shaped” structures was unearthed in the Jordan valley and it is believed to be one of the earliest sites that was built by the people of Israel after they entered the land of Canaan. According to Adam Zertal, an archaeologist at the University of Haifa, the structure probably reflects the biblical concept of ownership.

According to Zertal, “the finding is believed to represent the first time that enclosed sites identified with the biblical sites termed in Hebrew ‘gilgal’, which were used for assemblies, preparation for battle, and rituals, have been revealed in the Jordan valley. The Hebrew word ‘gilgal’ (a camp or stone-structure), is mentioned thirty-nine times in the Bible. The stone enclosures were located in the Jordan valley and the hill country west of it.”

According to the article published by ScienceDaily, “Prof. Zertal emphasized that the ‘foot’ held much significance as a symbol of ownership of territory, control over an enemy, connection between people and land, and presence of a deity. Some of these concepts are mentioned in ancient Egyptian literature. The Bible also has a wealth of references to the importance of the ‘foot’ as a symbol of ownership, the link between people and their deity, defeating the enemy ‘underfoot’, and the temple imaged as a foot.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Adam Zertal, Archaeology, Gilgal

Deborah: A Judge in Israel

According to the book of Judges, Deborah was a woman from Ephraim who served as a tribal leader and as a woman who was called to speak on behalf of Yahweh. Judges 4:4-5 speaks of Deborah’s dual role in Israel:

“Now Deborah, a prophetess, the wife of Lappidoth, was judging Israel at that time. She used to sit under the palm of Deborah between Ramah and Bethel in the hill country of Ephraim, and the people of Israel came up to her for judgment.”

Scholars differ on their understanding of Deborah’s role as a “shophet.” The word “shophet” can be translated “judge,” “deliver,” “rule,” “govern,” or “decide.” Some scholars translate the plural word “shophetim” as “saviors.”

None of the individuals in the book of Judges are called “judge.” The word “judge” was used by the writer of Judges to describe the work of the main characters of the book:

“Then the LORD raised up judges, who saved them out of the hand of those who plundered them. Yet they did not listen to their judges, for they whored after other gods and bowed down to them. They soon turned aside from the way in which their fathers had walked, who had obeyed the commandments of the LORD, and they did not do so. Whenever the LORD raised up judges for them, the LORD was with the judge, and he saved them from the hand of their enemies all the days of the judge” (Judges 2:16-19).

The book of Judges shows that the judges were involved in military campaigns (Judges 2:16; 3:10), were leaders of the community (Judges 10:3; 12:7), and also administered justice (Judges 4:4). In the Old Testament, a judge functioned in a judicial and institutional context, but there is no evidence to support the view that Deborah and the other judges in the book of Judges functioned in this capacity.

Some scholars have suggested that the “shophet” was an arbitrator of local disputes without any institutional authority. However, due to the tribal structure of Israel, it seems that the judges mentioned in the book of Judges had little influence outside their own tribes.

A better interpretation of the role of the “shophetim” was that these individuals served as civil or military leaders in their communities. Maybe the only exception was Deborah. However, even in her case, it is possible to attribute Deborah with military leadership for she summoned Barak to be her military commander and fight against the Canaanites. Barak declined the leadership of the army unless Deborah joined him in battle. Barak said to Deborah: “If you go with me, I’ll go. But if you don’t go with me, I won't go” (Judges 4:8).

In addition to her role in the military campaign against the Canaanites, Deborah also counseled the people and settled disputes in the community. The biblical text states that Deborah held court under the palm of Deborah between Ramah and Bethel in the hill country of Ephraim. It was there that the people of Israel came to her to have their disputes settled (Judges 4:4-5).

Some scholars believe that Deborah was not a judge or a deliverer in the same way that the other deliverers mentioned in the book of Judges were. The reason for this reluctance to accept Deborah as a judge is because there are several important elements missing in Deborah’s story that are present in the accounts of the other judges. These elements include the absence of the statement that Yahweh raised up a deliverer, the fact that Deborah was not involved in direct military action as the other judges were but it was Barak who fought against the enemies of Israel, and the lack of a reference to Deborah as being empowered by the Spirit.

In ancient Israel it is possible that most villages would have wise persons to whom the people would come to seek resolution for their problems. These wise persons would be sought by the community because of their wisdom and the soundness of their advice. These persons did not assume the function of counselors or advisors by having received some official sanction or appointment but by having the confidence of the people or by being recognized as people who were endowed by God with special gifts.

In Israel, the administration of justice was generally dispensed at the city gates. Job said that before his illness he dispensed justice at the city gate: “Those were the days when I went to the city gate and took my place among the honored leaders” (Job 29:7). And there, he dispensed justice for people in need: “For I assisted the poor in their need and the orphans who required help. I helped those without hope, and they blessed me. And I caused the widows’ hearts to sing for joy” (Job 29:12-13).

However, in a patriarchal society, where the elders of the city would decide questions of justice,
would Deborah have been welcomed at the city gates? Would her advice have been accepted to be as binding as the decisions of the elders? Maybe that is the reason the text says that Deborah held court under the palm of Deborah.

Since Deborah would not have fit into the traditional social and legal structures of Israel and since she could not act as a judge at the city gate, she probably performed her role at another place and in another setting: under a palm tree.

How difficult was it for Deborah to fulfill her role as a judge? It is possible that in ancient Israel women sought advice from other women, but there is nothing in the biblical text to indicate that Deborah’s work as a judge was limited only to women. As a woman who functioned as God’s spokesperson, the people of Israel would evaluate Deborah’s wisdom and the conviction of her call as a validation of her work as a judge. Because of her God-given abilities, the people would accept her work and follow her leadership. This is clearly expressed in the poetic section of the story of Deborah: “Warriors became fat and sloppy, no fight left in them until you arose, Deborah, until you arose as a motherly protector in Israel” (Judges 5:7).

Advice and counsel given by women was not totally unknown to men in Israel. The Bible mentions several other women who were wise and served as counselors. One of these wise women was the woman from Tekoa whose counsel to David led to his reconciliation with his son, Absalom (2 Samuel 14:1-20). Another wise woman was the woman from Abel who saved her city by persuading Joab not to destroy it and who counseled the city elders “with her wise advice” to deliver Sheba to Joab (2 Samuel 20:22).

The book of Judges shows that Deborah was recognized as a judge in Israel because she offered sound advice to Barak and to other people in Israel. Whether it was Deborah’s prophetic role rather than her judicial office that drew the people to her at her palm tree, whatever the reasons people came to Deborah and listened to her words of wisdom, the fact is clearly evident that she was successful in her role as a shophet in Israel.

Previous Studies on Deborah:

Deborah: Prophetess and Judge

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Deborah, Judge, Shophet